Lingshed: Aba Tsering Mutup and Ama Tsering Dolkar.

In the past the natives of Lingshed sourced salt from distant regions, including Zanskar and Skyu Markha. Tsering Mutup, 80 years old, a native of Lingshed himself traveled to Zanskar to procure salt from Changpa traders, who arrived with their stock transported on sheep. In exchange, barley was offered as payment. The mode of transport for these goods involved carrying barley and peas on the back or loading them onto donkeys for the journey. The Changpas set up their camp between Zangla and Padum, where trade was conducted. The standard exchange rate was a woolen sack, known as a lugal, filled with salt in return for an equivalent amount of barley. Mutup distinctly recalls carrying ten battis of barley and returning with an equal amount of salt, all on his back.

These visits to Zanskar always took place in the autumn months, a time when freshly harvested barley was available for exchange—a schedule that aligned with the trading needs of the Changpas. Apart from his travels to Zanskar, Mutup also visited Leh to purchase wool from a Balti merchant, who would temporarily set up shop in the city. This transaction was conducted in cash. His journey to Leh occurred during the winter months when the frozen Zanskar River, known as the Chadar, provided a natural pathway. He would travel with four to five goats, selling them in the Leh market for approximately Rs 30 to 40 per goat. The money earned was then used to purchase wool from the Balti shopkeeper. Any surplus cash was spent on essentials such as butter and chai, with prices during that era recorded at Rs 16 for a batti of chai and Rs 30 for a batti of butter. Mutup was around 17 years old at the time, making these journeys before his marriage.

Every year, traders from Sham Valley villages—including Khlaste, Domkhar, Shyurbuchan, and Kanji—visited Lingshed to sell apricots, apples, rice, and kerosene. Mutup recalls purchasing a bottle of kerosene in exchange for five Bay (a small container) of barley, while salt could be acquired at a rate of three Bay of barley for one Bay of salt. These exchanges formed an integral part of the seasonal trading traditions that sustained communities across the region.

 

Lingshed: Aba Lobzang Tsering.

                                                  

Lobzang Tsering, now 77 years old, recalls stories from his father about the salt trade of earlier times. Elders from his village would carry salt on their backs from Skyu and Kaya villages, where it was purchased from Changpa traders during their annual visits to the Markha valley. In exchange, the people of Lingshed offered peas and barley from their harvests.

Later, Lobzang’s father and his relative, Tsering Angchuk, would walk all the way to Zangla in Zanskar to obtain salt, timing their journey to coincide with the arrival of the Changpa caravans. Lobzang also remembers a relative named Norphel from Pishu village in Zanskar, who used to bring salt to Lingshed in winter and take back peas. Norphel would stay with the family for a few days during his trips. Lobzang was around fifteen at the time.

During the harvest season, traders from the Sham region—particularly from Tingmosgang, Wanla, and Khaltse—would cross the Singge La and Sir Sir La passes to reach Lingshed. They brought wool, salt, kerosene, apricots, and apples to barter for barley, which was much prized. Most of the Sham traders stayed with the Shalang family; others were hosted in cow pens or temporary shelters offered by local households. Their stay would last 10 to 15 days. At the time, there was no road through the Machu valley, where a motorable route is currently under construction.

Barley from Lingshed was in high demand and considered a staple annual ration for many of these traders. Occasionally, traders from Kargil would also visit Lingshed to buy yaks, although yak numbers were limited in the region.

As a young boy, Lobzang once journeyed to Akshow in Zanskar with Ajang Dorjey of the Jorpey family, who was taking yaks for sale. There, Lobzang witnessed Changpa traders in large numbers, camped in tents and conducting trade in salt and wool. These goods were transported on sheep burdened with lugals, the traditional woven carrying sacks. He vividly recalls a striking sight—how the sheep, when tired, would dig shallow depressions in the earth and settle into them in such a way that their loads rested outside the hollow, thereby relieving the weight on their backs.

Lingshed connects to the outside world through several ancient routes. One prominent path leads across Barmi La to Dibling La, and from there to Rangdum. From Rangdum, one can reach Zanskar by crossing Pensi La or continue to Kargil through Parkachik and the Suru Valley. Lobzang himself has traveled these routes, especially when collecting buldut or karlong—donations made for the local gompa, as per longstanding tradition.

Another important route leads from Lingshed toward Nyerak, descending to the frozen Zanskar river—famously known as the Chadar route—which eventually leads to Leh. Lobzang has walked this treacherous winter trail, carrying barley and returning with tea and butter. To afford these goods, villagers sold goats and sheep to Balti traders who visited their village.

The Brokpas of Ladakh: Petroglyphs, Doltoks and Telegraph

Chamba Gyaltsan

The Brokpa community, settled in villages along the banks of the Indus River in Ladakh, India, is regarded as one of the earliest settler groups in the region. Chamba Gyaltsan, now 97 years old and a resident of Dah village, is one of the oldest members of the Brokpa community. He recalls the legend of his ancestors—three brothers named Galo, Melo, and Dulo—who migrated from Gilgit centuries ago. They first settled in Dah and later expanded to Hanu, Garkhon, Darchik, and neighboring villages.

The author met him in Baldes, a small hamlet of Dah. Reflecting on his disciplined youth, Chamba credits his health to a life centered around farming and family responsibilities. During his youth each day began around 4 a.m., feeding their horses, donkeys, and goats before starting fieldwork without breakfast. Time was marked by the sun’s position rather than clocks; as it rose above the mountains, they knew it was time to head home for their first meal. Food was seasonal: in autumn and winter, they ate paaba made from chaa (sorghum) for warmth, while in summer, barley was used to make kholak and paaba.

When Chamba was a young man, many from the Brokpa villages, including Chamba's father, journeyed to the salt markets in the Sakti and Chemrey villages, where they traded their barley and phating (dried apricots) for salt with Changpa traders. In these markets, only the leader of the Changpa group handled negotiations. Salt was traded in solid natural blocks known as Tsa dok-dok, rather than in powder form. The typical exchange rate was three battis (about 2 kg) of salt for one batti of phating, with separate rates set for wool (bal) and sheep. If needed, Changpa traders used a traditional scale called nyaga, calibrated with a stone known as pordo, to measure goods.

After returning from the Sakti-Chemrey market, Chamba's father and fellow villagers traveled over a week from Dah to reach Skardu and Shigar in Baltistan, where they traded salt for additional phating (dried apricots). It was customary for family members to escort relatives till Olding and Morol in Baltistan, where they crossed rivers in a ritual known as chu phingey phiya, or “crossing the water.” At 18, shortly after his marriage, Chamba joined this journey himself, traveling from Dah through Gurgurdo, Phuru, and Dansar to reach Morol—a three-day trek.

According to Chamba, the route to Skardo was known to involve crossing three major rivers. While Chamba could only identify the Leh-Chu (Indus) and Kusting Chu (Shyok), maps suggest that the third river might have been the Drass River, which travelers likely crossed to reach Olding before crossing the Indus again to arrive in Morol. This remains a hypothesis and could be refined with new information. At Morol, Chamba observed how the Brokpas relied on native Baltis to help them cross the rivers, using inflated buffalo skins called Jaks. The Baltis would place a Spangleb—a wooden slab—on two Jaks and secure it with ropes, creating a sturdy boat called a Thorow, capable of carrying both people and animals. Chamba saw that while men, donkeys, and cattle sailed on the Thorow, the horses would literally swim across the rivers. After ensuring his father’s safe crossing, Chamba returned to Dah.

The annual visits that the Brokpa traders made to the Sakti-Chemrey salt markets were primarily for trading salt in Baltistan. However, for personal use, the Brokpas in Dah mainly relied on Shamma traders, who traveled directly to villages in winter to sell salt and wool. These Shamma traders came from neighbouring villages of Saspol, Skurbuchan, and Temisgang, often braving heavy snowfall in the 11th and 12th months of the Ladakhi calendar. The annual visits of the Shamma traders and their trade involving tsa (salt) and bal (wool) were known as Tsatob Baltob by the Brokpas. The sturdy Shamma traders would camp in open fields, brewing tea, even during snow in harsh winter conditions. They borrowed shovels from villagers to clear the snow and covered their donkeys with thick covers for warmth.  The Brokpas would offer them supplies of kornak or patchaa—the remains of apricot kernels after oil extraction—as feed for their donkeys and dried turnips and chuli (apricots) in exchange of salt.

However, there were times of salt scarcity and Chamba narrated a little known practice followed by the Brokpas in the past. During times of scarcity, the Brokpa community, including Chamba Gyalstan's family, practiced an ingenious tradition of gathering Pa-tsaa from nearby mountains. This whitish substance, which resembled soda found in Nubra, was collected from soil secretions in certain mountainous areas. Chamba explained that his parents would carry it as a mixture of soil and stones back home, where they would process it by mixing it with water in a doltok ( stone utensil). The water was then filtered and used as a substitute for salt, helping the community manage during shortages.

Before India's independence in 1947, Leh served as Ladakh's summer capital, while Skardu was the winter capital. Government business operated through a Darbar Shift, with officials moving between the two locations based on the season. Communication between Leh and Skardu was maintained through telegrams and mail. Once, while in Leh, Chamba recalls witnessing a strange machine on which a government employee was operating a handle at different frequencies. Curious about the device, he learned that the silver wires connecting Leh to Skardu enabled the machine, known as the telegraph, to transmit messages across the distance.

In the past, doltoks (stone utensils) were a significant trade item between the Brokpas and the Baltis of Baltistan. Chamba shared that these essential utensils were crafted by villagers from Kusting (the old name for Hassanabad), located along the Shyok River, now in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. The Brokpas would meet the Kusting villagers at Kusting La, the site for Doltoks making. Kusting la, a mountain pass accessible from Dah after crossing Nyerda, was an area known for its abundant stone resources ideal for making doltoks. This trade involved Brokpas from Dah and villagers from Khalste, who traveled specifically to acquire these utensils. A mutual understanding existed between the communities: Brokpas would leave any unattended doltoks untouched, while Kusting villagers refrained from disturbing the Brokpas' cattle grazing in the area. Due to limited income, Kusting villagers also traveled annually to Shimla in Himachal Pradesh for seasonal work. Chamba Gyaltsan recalls seeing them pass through Dah, often stopping to rest at the changra (a communal space for celebrations) along their journey.

Meeting with Chamba Gyaltsan was filled with many anecdotal discussions. The areas around the Brokpa villages of Ladakh are famous for their high concentration of petroglyphs. Chamba shared a mystical explanation for the petroglyphs found around Khalste and Brokpa villages in the Indus Valley. According to him, these engravings are not man-made but were created by tiny beings known as Ileyphru, who work only under the cover of darkness. So small that they could fit into a cap. He claims to have witnessed this phenomenon firsthand when, once overnight, a petroglyph appeared on a local boulder. Chamba notes that local folklore holds that if one encounters an Ileyphru, the creature may grant a wish.

The oppressive Res or Thal system required villagers to provide free labor to government officials as they traveled between Leh, Kargil, and neighboring villages. For Dah’s 35 families, this duty extended from Nyurla to Lamayuru. Chamba vividly remembers one particularly challenging Res duty: transporting large tires across the mountains, a task that left him with painful rashes on his back. In addition to Res, villagers faced Jinsi and Bhaps taxes, collected twice a year by the Goba (village head) and submitted at Lamayuru. Chamba also recalls a time when nearly everything in Ladakh was taxed, from horses to land. 

Besides these obligations, the Ladakhis had to deal with a barrage of government officials making unreasonable demands. During Losar, the Kazdar would visit Dah, arriving with two horses and accompanied by the Shikardo, who enforced hunting restrictions. Villagers hosted these officials at the Goba’s residence, offering phukma (dry grass) for the horses and serving chang (local alcohol) and lavish food to the guests. During his stay, the Kazdar also resolved local disputes. These visits required the Brokpas to offer gifts, and doltoks were highly prized by the visiting officials. Years later, Chamba visited the family of a deceased Kazdar and recognized several doltoks he believed were forced gifts from his village.

Chamba holds deep respect for the 19th Ven. Bakula Rinpoche, whose efforts ultimately led to the abolition of these oppressive practices, freeing the people of Ladakh from the burdens of forced labor and excessive taxes.

Last of the Traders

Tashi Stanba

Tashi Stanba, a centenarian from Domkhar village in Ladakh, is one of the last surviving traders from an era when Ladakhi merchants ventured into Baltistan to sell tsa (salt), bal (wool), and pul (soda). While Tashi's father, Aba Chamba, bought salt at the annual salt markets in Chemrey and Sakti, his elder brother preferred traveling to the remote Changthang region to acquire wool. Among all the goods brought by the Ladakhi traders, salt was in particularly high demand in Baltistan. 

On his maiden trip to Khaplu in Baltistan, Stanba, along with his elder brother and four companions, set out with seven donkeys loaded with Tsa, Bal, and Pul. They traveled via the Achinathang-Hanu Phu-Chorbat La route, passing through an area where the Turtuk Chu (Shyok River) meets another river before reaching Khaplu. The journey from Domkhar to Khaplu took seven days. Along the way, they stopped at a Sandog, which had a large goat population. There, they purchased a goat, which they later feasted on upon reaching Khaplu.

Upon reaching Khaplu, they set up a base at a Brangsa near the town, where the Baltis greeted them with food. In return, the Ladakhi traders offered salt as gift. Tashi recalled an interesting tradition in Baltistan: when the Baltis received salt from Ladakh, they would swallow a handful in one go. In his case, the locals consumed an entire cupful of salt in one gulp. The demand for Ladakhi salt was high, and the Baltis often competed for a share of the limited supply. Each morning, the Ladakhi traders would rise early to finish their meal before the Baltis arrived, as their bustling presence stirred up dust and made cooking more difficult. 

During his stay in Khaplu, Tashi Stanba and his companions had the unique opportunity to witness a polo match featuring the local chieftain, known as the Cho, who they were told was a descendant of Buddhist ancestors. They learned that the Khar (fort) in Khaplu housed copies of the Kangyur and Tangyur, sacred Buddhist texts that served as a reminder of their heritage. After the match, when the Ladakhi traders were trying to find their way back to the Brangsa, the Cho came to their aid and guided them home. Stanba and the other traders spent about ten days in Khaplu, returning with Phating (dried apricots), dried mulberries and  Mar (butter). Although Tashi Stanba cannot recall the exact year or his age at the time of his visit to Khaplu, he distinctly remembers that it occurred during the Dogra rule.

Balti traders frequently visited Domkhar, Sham, and other parts of Ladakh. According to Tashi Stanba, over 100 Baltis would pass through Domkhar each year, traveling to various parts of Ladakh to sell butter and Doltok (stone utensils) of different sizes. These goods were carried on wooden frames called Kis-Kis, which were strapped to their backs. When the Baltis grew tired, they would remain standing but rest by placing a stick under the Kis-Kis to relieve the load. Some Balti traders could carry up to 50 Battis (each Batti weighing about 2 kg) of butter at once, selling them for Rs 2.5 per Batti in Domkhar. The Baltis exchanged Doltoks for barley, using a unique method: they filled each selected Doltok to the brim to determine the quantity of barley for the final exchange.

In his youth, Tashi Stanba operated a small shop in Domkhar, selling essentials like matchboxes, Pakphey (wheat flour), and Marnak (mustard oil). To stock his shop, he frequently traveled to Kashmir, visiting places like Batamaloo where he purchased Marnak for Rs 5 per tin. On one occasion, when they were stuck in Kashmir due to the closure of traffic to Ladakh,Stanba and his companions sought help from Sonam Nurbo Sahib, who was then a minister in the Jammu and Kashmir government. Thanks to his intervention, they were escorted to Kargil, and from there, a police vehicle took them till Khalatse.

Tashi Stanba attributes much of Ladakh's development to the 19th Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Sonam Nurbo Sahib. He believes that through the efforts of Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib, Ladakh saw significant progress, including the arrival of airplanes. He remembered seeing an airplane for the first time and offering Chak (a salutation) to express his gratitude to both Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib.

The above interview was conducted in 2021.

Nurla village: The Radio and the Mail Runners of Ladakh

Nawang Tundup

Nawang Tundup, 90 years old, of Serchongpa family in village Nurla, in Leh, Ladakh, India, measures his land by sunsets. It takes him three sunsets to finish working on his vast fields. When he was young, prices were significantly different: Chuli was Rs 1 per Pao (250 grams), and Phating was Rs 3 per Pao. In his youth, Nawang Tundup would visit Sakti with his donkeys, staying there for 2-3 days until the Changpas (nomadic herders) arrived. He bartered Nas (barley) for salt, then returned to Nurla before heading to Kargil, where he would again trade his surplus salt for Nas, earning a profit. Once back in Nurla, he would grind the barley into Phey (a type of flour), which he then sold again for a profit. 

At the age of 25, Nawang Tundup made a trip to Kashmir, taking Rs 200 with him to buy rice. His companions on the journey were a member of the Tongspon family, Tashi from the Kyatpa family, and Skarma from the Gongmey family. He returned with Rs 100 still unspent—a significant amount in those days, when Rs 100 could meet most of one’s needs. “One hundred rupees back then was worth more than a thousand now,” he remarked. He traveled with one horse and five donkeys (Horbung), which he had purchased from the Hors. From Kashmir, the horse carried 50 Battis (1 Batti equals about 2 kg) of rice, while the stronger donkeys carried 30 Battis, and the weaker ones carried 25 Battis each. The journey to Kashmir took 15 days each way, and they stayed in Kashmir for several days. During this trip, Nawang Tundup and his team met the famous Ladakhi engineer Shri Sonam Nurbo, who was taking measurements for the new road from Srinagar to Leh. He later met him once again when he was inspecting the road from Wanla to Hanupatta.

Master Sonam Dorjey

Master Sonam Dorjey, 98 yrs, is a retired headmaster and respected scholar of mid-20th century Ladakh. Over his career, he taught in remote areas across Ladakh, including Nubra and Changthang. His most memorable experience was in 1954 when he traveled to Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar with the 19th Venerable Bakula Rinpoche. The pilgrimage team consisted of four lamas, the Goba from Spituk village, Nyemo Acho Phunsok, Tsetan Tundup from Gongbey Tongspon, Leh, Khambey Ajang Tsering Sonam, and 10-11 other attendees. Master Dorjey recalls an incident during this pilgrimage where the person in charge of planning the route made a mistake, leading the group from Demchok, Tashigang to Rudok and then to Manasarovar, and back through Changla. According to Master Dorjey, the journey should have followed the Buddhist practice of Skora (circumambulation), taking them from Changla, Tangtse, Chushul, and Rudok, with the return via Tashigang and Demchok.

After leaving Tashigang, the next major stop was at Minsar, which is Indian territory ( for more on Minsar, pl refer to the terms of the Treaty of Timosgang, of 1684), and the residents there paid revenue taxes to the Indian government. By this time, the people of Minsar were aware of the looming Chinese threat and shared their concerns with the group. The team stayed in Minsar for a night. The next stop was at Tetapuri Gompa, where the Komyer (incharge Lama) hailed from Hemis Monastery in Ladakh. They then moved on to Tokponoo and Chosku Gompa, where they stayed for two days, followed by a two-day stop at Deraphuk Gompa. After crossing the Dolma La Pass, they reached a place called Zumthulphuk.

Four days later, they arrived at a village called Tarchen, at the base of Kang Rinpoche (Mount Kailash), where many families lived in Rebos (tent-like structures) and small flat-roofed houses. The team stayed in Tarchen for 2-3 days before climbing to Diyung Gompa, a small, pristine monastery with only four lamas. After this, they reached a place called Gyantak and ventured no further. Master Dorjey fondly remembers seeing many Chortens (Buddhist stupas) at the base of Kang Rinpoche. The entire journey took about three and a half months before they returned to Leh.

In the past, Sham was known for its resilient traders who ventured to distant places in Tibet. Many from Sham would even participate in the famed Lopchak Trade Mission to Lhasa, Tibet ( for more on Lopchak,  pl refer to the Treaty of Timosgang,1684). Master Dorjey never witnessed the Lopchak Mission firsthand, but he frequently heard about the departure of the mission through Phunsog Namgyal of the Thangpa family from Nurla, who would accompany the Leh Kalon on the Lopchak every three years. The villagers of Nurla would hold a send-off ceremony, Kalchor, for Phunsog Namgyal before his departure. Other than Lopchak, the Shamma traders would go all across the Indus Valley, Nubra, Changthang, and Tibet. The furthest the Ladakhi traders traveled was to Gerste, where they encountered a Gerste Spon, who was in charge of all affairs in the area. Shamma traders from Ladakh carried goods such as Phey, Skampey, Phating, Stho Phating, and Nas. In return, they brought back Tsoskhul, Lena, Bal, Legu, Khulu, Sukdan, Sukthul, Mar, and Luk from Tibet.

According to Master Sonam Dorjey, during his youth, Meme Sonam Tundup of the Tsaskan family in Nurla was the leading trader not only in Nurla but perhaps in the whole of Sham. Master Dorjey also noted that Aba Phunsog had traveled as far as Lahore for business. He described Tundup as a generous and semba lakmo (clean-hearted) individual who frequently helped others in need. Tundup often advised people not to take large loans from him, although he always provided whatever they asked for. He sent his three sons to different regions of Changthang to trade and helped many families in and around Nurla become wealthy.

Besides the annual visits to the remote regions of Ladakh and Tibet, the Sham people also traded with outsiders passing through Sham. Sonam Dorjey recalled the Hor traders, who passed through Sham on their transit to Haj. These visits created business opportunities, particularly for those living along the highway (Paldapa), compared to those who lived nearer the mountains (Lungbatpa). In fact, many people residing along the roadside in Nurla and Sham learned some of the Hor language, which helped them trade with the Hors. One Abhi from the Staskan family was particularly known for her fluency in the language. Other traders passing by Nurla included Kashmiris and Baltis, though the Karjapas, who traveled to Leh from the southeastern roads, did not reach Sham.

Master Sonam recalls a unique mail-runner system that was in popular practice during the first half of the 20th century in Ladakh. It was through his uncle, Tsering Chhospel from Pharketang, who was a well-known mail runner, that Sonam learned the details of this unique system. Introduced by the Dogra officials to ensure mail reached its destination promptly, the system involved a series of runners covering the entire route from Leh to Srinagar and Skardu. The chain continued day and night, ensuring that a letter or parcel reached its destination without delay. Two mail runners covered each four-mile segment, passing the mail like a relay. Letters from Leh could reach Nurla the same day. Heavy parcels were kept separate and delivered later. In May 2024, Angchuk Fargo, the nephew of Master Sonam Dawa and the grandson of Tsering Chhospel, showed me the remains of two remote sites that were the remnants of old Dak Ghars used for storing Dak (mail)) during the days of the mail-runners.

 Ka Angchuk Fargo 

It was his mail-runner uncle who first told Master Sonam about a new technology called the radio. According to Master Sonam, a Christian Padri (priest) who came to live in Khalatse had brought the first radio to the region. His mail-runner uncle, Tsering Chhospel, would stop in Khalatse every Saturday after handing over his mail load to the next runner. The uncle, fascinated by the Padri’s English, began learning the language from him. It was during this time that his uncle saw the radio for the first time and returned to the village to tell people about the Padri's "talking box" with wires. He also recounted seeing the Padri cry while listening to the strange device. Much later, Master Sonam learned that the Padri had been receiving news about World War II on his radio and was saddened by the Allies’ defeats at the hands of Japanese soldiers. For a long time, no one in the village believed his uncle’s description of the “talking box.” Master Sonam also witnessed a gramophone for the first time when the Gyalpo Sonam Tundup Namgyal of Zangla in Zanskar visited Nurla on his way to Leh. Villagers gathered under a walnut tree to listen to the Gyalpo play music on the gramophone. Master Sonam also recalled how, during this period, when Europeans visited Ladakh, his mail-runner uncle, a keen learner of English, would quiz Master Sonam on the origins of these visitors, distinguishing the British (the "real Angrezpa"), Spainpa, Germanpa, and Italipa. 

Master Sonam remembered the  dreaded tradition of Res (forced labor), which required villagers along the road to transport goods for officials traveling to and from Leh for free on their  back. Foreigners, especially under orders from the British Joint Commissioner, would pay for the labor, but local Ladakhi officials, including Chaprasis, and Kashmiri officials, such as the Wazir, never paid for the labor. Many villagers purchased horses to avoid being forced to carry loads on their backs. Some even took loans to buy horses, hoping to escape the grueling Res labor. The Wazir’s wife and dog would often be transported in a Palki (palanquin), carried by a team of 15-16 people who took turns after short distances.

Master Sonam recalls a story as told to him by his grandfather, once a group of foreigners pitched three tents on Master Sonam’s land.  There was a dispute about the final payment to be made. One day, the British commissioner happened to be passing by Nurla. Master Sonam's grandfather seized the opportunity to visit the commissioner at the bungalow and complained to the British Joint Commissioner. The official listened patiently and ordered that the remaining money be paid. The order was typed using a small box, which villagers later learned was called a typewriter.

During a certain year, news spread of the impending bursting of a lake in Depsang, Nubra, leading to an influx of foreigners to the region who were part of the team assigned to solve the issue. The English recruited strong men from Nurla and nearby villages like Timosgang, including Tsaskan Meme Tundup's younger brother and Master Sonam’s mail-runner uncle, who was selected because he understood English. In Nurla, the Kutti (a small house) and a bungalow, once used for officials, have since been converted into a hospital and a school. According to Master Sonam, although times have changed, nothing has gone to waste. 

The above interviews were conducted in 2021.

Zanskar to Paddar, Salt, Horses and Butter

Sonam Phunsog

Sonam Phunsog, 68, from the Changmachan family in Akshow village, Zanskar, Ladakh, is one of the most experienced travelers in the Zanskar Valley. His father, Tundup Stanzin, mentored him in the skills of long-distance travel. In his youth, Tundup would journey to Paddar in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir, transporting Changthang salt—obtained by exchanging barley in Zanskar—to trade for rice and wheat. The people of Zanskar have long-standing ties with Paddar, and Sonam has an aunt married to a man in Losan, Paddar, where she has five daughters, all of whom are married within the region.

Wood, Shovels and Zongba from Paddar

At 14, Sonam embarked on his first journey to Paddar with his father, traversing the Hangshula pass route to reach Sumcham, the first inhabited village in Paddar. During that time, wood was scarce in Zanskar, with only a place called Yaga having some Talu (narrow wood). Sonam continued traveling to Paddar,  always travelling in groups from Akshow, sometimes comprising over 30 men. In Paddar, Sonam acquired Dungma (wood logs), Khem (wooden shovels), and Palang (cattle). Business in Paddar was difficult due to local police objections to transporting wood and other goods. According to Sonam, to overcome this, Zanskari traders enlisted the help of the Chukpo (wealthy individual) of Paddar, who managed the police on their behalf. In return, each Zanskari was expected to bring shing khuru-a large log of wood, as a gift for the Chukpo. The Chukpo often provided accommodation and food. Once the wood was delivered to the Chukpo, traders could freely conduct their business and leave Paddar without police interference. Logs were typically 4-5 feet long; older men carried four logs, while younger men carried two. Khem, or wooden shovels, were popular items, with strong individuals able to carry up to 20 Khems back to Zanskar. Each Khem cost 5 Muls or Rs 5, and a log of wood was valued at one Mul or one Rupee. At 14, Sonam carried two Khems and one Zongba, a wooden tray used for cleaning wool. Back in Akshow, while the wealthy owned their own Zongbas, the less fortunate borrowed those of the wealthy. Then there were the professional who would visit the villagers at  their home and clean the wool charging Rs 5 or two Marnaks ( bottle of cooking oil) for the service. Today, wool cleaning costs Rs 1000. 

In Zanskar, Sonam used the wood from Paddar for repairing old buildings and roofing new ones, while selling the Khems to Balti traders entering Zanskar from Pensila. Khems purchased in Paddar for Rs 5 were sold for Rs 10 to the Baltis. The Baltis, numbering around 14-15, traveled throughout Zanskar to Padum, selling horses, rice, chickens, and cattle. They also came from Damna, Kashmir, through the Chilong Valley near Panikhar, bringing cows to exchange for sheep and money. They were followed by Shamma traders from Tingmosgang, Nurla, and other places in the Sham region, who brought 30-35 donkeys loaded with kerosene in jerrycans. The Shamma traders would charge separately for the empty jerrycans.

Changpa Salt traders

During the 8th or 9th month of the Ladakhi calendar, the Changpas would visit Zanskar. Sonam vividly remembers the arrival of the Changpas. They would set up in a large field at the edge of the village and begin an age-old tradition of killing a big male sheep, Khalpa, presenting the meat to every family as a gift and announcement of their arrival. Only after this ritual would the Changpas start selling salt to the Zanskaris. The exchange rate was one Lugal (a bag used to load salt on sheep) of salt for an equal quantity of barley, whereas in central Zanskar, the rate was double—half a Lugal of salt for a full Lugal of barley.

For the Changpas entering Ladakh from the Zunglam crossing the Chacharla and from Lingti River crossing the Chumik Marpo, Akshow was the last point in Zanskar. For the Baltis entering from the west side, Padum was the last point where their goods would be sold. A popular saying in Zanskar reflects this: Akshow and Abran is the place for distress sales for the Changpas, while Padum is the place for distress sales for the Baltis.

Zanskari Horses

Sonam also notes that, until a decade ago, horses were a crucial part of Zanskari life. Every family in Akshow owned 2-3 horses, but now only his and his brother's families have horses. Zanskari and Spiti horses were highly valued, with Spiti horses being particularly prized. People from Akshow would travel with their horses to Kargil and return in 25 days with rice, salt, marnak, samar (kerosene oil), and pakpey (wheat flour). Sonam traveled on horseback to Sankoo to buy sarnak, samar, das (rice), and pakpey for the winter. Fifty years ago, a winter purchase of Mul 100 (Rs 100) was considered very good. The best Zanskari horses, known as Yorga, were prized for their smooth ride. Sonam’s brother recently sold a two-year-old Yorga for Rs 50,000 to a Kashmiri from Warwan. Yorga horses are now scarce in Zanskar, and the tradition of training horses to improve their gait has nearly vanished. According to Aba, traditionally, the best horses in Zanskar came from the Yulsum area near Karsha Gompa. Friends from Yulsum would graze their horses in the Stod region near Akshow due to its superior grazing grounds.

Zanskari Butter

The Stod region of Zanskar, is renowned for its high-quality Zanskari butter. It is believed that it owes its special taste to a variety of herbs in the region that the cattle feed on. According to Sonam, the best butter comes from dzomo (a mix of yak and domestic cattle). A dzomo yields about 1.5 to 2 liters of milk per day. Producing one liter of Zanskari butter requires about 10 liters of dzomo milk. In the past, Shamma traders visiting Zanskar to sell kerosene would exchange a jerrycan of kerosene for 3 kilos of butter. The money value of butter was Rs 33 per batti (2 kilos). Sonam’s father had a Shamma trader friend who would buy their butter for Rs 37 per batti. With the proceeds, Sonam would go to Kargil to buy food items.

Sonam's Yorga Horse

Yorga horse, Video courtesy of Stanzin Rabga, Reijing, Zanskar 

The Salt Route : Lamayuru to Tibet and Baltistan.

 

Sonam Stobdan

95-year-old Sonam Stobdan, from the Shutupa family in Lamayuru village in Ladakh, India, has spent many years of his life trading in and out of remote places, both within and outside Ladakh. His travels were carefully timed to coincide with the Hemis Tsechu festival, after which he would start his journey to Changthang or Tibet. In his youth, Sonam journeyed to Rudok, which he called Roochey Thog, and Gertse in Tibet with his herd of 8-10 donkeys, carrying goods such as barley, turnips, chuli, and phating from Ladakh. These items were highly valued by the natives of Tibet, and in exchange, he would receive bal, lena, and khullu.

Upon arriving in Gertse, Sonam would meet with the Gertse Spon, the local community leader, to gain permission to set up camp, often staying there for nearly a month.  He would set up his tent a little way away from the Changpas, respecting their privacy. He spent about a month, interacting with the Changpas, who lived in tents scattered across Gertse and the surrounding Lungpas and collected his stock of bal from them. Unlike modern trade, goods were often measured by volume rather than weight. In rare cases, he would use the traditional balance called the Nyaga. The exchange rate for goods varied, and he often received more bal, as barley was considered a rare commodity by the Changpas. In addition to bal, Sonam would also purchase sheep to carry the extra load, with each sheep able to carry two Batis of goods.

Sonam is one of the few remaining individuals in Ladakh who remembers the once-thriving salt markets of Sakti-Chemrey. He recalls how the Changpa salt traders would set up large markets in these areas, where thousands of sheep laden with salt would gather for days. Traders from the Sham region, particularly from villages above Bodh Kharbu (towards Khalste), would come to these markets to exchange Nas (barley) for the salt, which the Changpas brought from the salt fields of Lake Mingdum Tsaka in Tibet. Salt was traded for barley using a ratio of 4:5—four parts salt for five parts barley—with measurements typically done in Pao units (½ Pao, 1 Pao, with 4 Paos equaling 1 Seer, and 8 Paos equaling 1 Batti). After returning to Lamayuru and resting briefly, Sonam would travel to Kargil to sell the salt, often doubling his investment.

Sonam also made two memorable trips to Skardu and Shigar with his father. The journey from Kargil to Skardu took about eight days, passing through Olding, Sermik, and Gol. In Shigar, they camped near a sacred site associated with Guru Rinpoche. From Skardu, they purchased goods like Basho, Osay, and Phating, in exchange for salt and Bal. The Baltis, who were particularly fond of salt, would eagerly trade for it, often expressing their delight with the phrase Acho Bodh Leptok when they reached Shigar. To show their excitement upon seeing the precious salt, the Baltis would often take a handful of it and swallow it.

Reflecting on the past, Sonam also recalls the challenging days when the revenue department imposed taxes on the villagers in the form of Jins and Bhaps . They were also taxed for their goats, which had to be paid in the form of Ra-bhabs. While nearby villages like Dah, Hanu, and Bema would submit their Jins at Lamayuru, the people of Lamayuru were required to travel to Saspol twice a year to pay their dues.

Sonam has particularly unpleasant memories of the lower-level Ladakhi revenue officials, especially a notorious Chaprasi named Stanzin Ldawa (name changed), who, about 60 years ago, would visit the village with a whip, harshly treating the poor villagers. There was a Dak Bungalow in the village where the Hakims would rest, and the villagers were often forced to provide them with eggs, chicken, and goat. The villagers were also subjected to the Begar or Res system, where they were required to carry government loads from Lamayuru to Khalste or Bodh Kharbu for free. At times, they even had to carry a Palki, a four-man carriage, in which the officials’ families traveled. Any misstep would result in a whipping from the accompanying staff. Sonam, being a horse owner, was spared from carrying the loads himself, as he could offer his horse instead. However, those without horses, known as Miskyang, had to carry the burdens on their own backs.

In certain years, during autumn, when there was a scarcity of fodder for the donkeys, he would journey as far as Suru Karstey in Suru valley for grass and Phukma, a practice known as Phuktso.