Ladakh-Yarkand trade route: Three Gentlemen

Stanzin Tsewang

Stanzin Tsewang, now 96-year-old, from Kyagar village in Nubra, Ladakh, is widely respected as an authority on the routes and geography of Nubra. Drawing from the Ladags Gyalrabs, Stanzin traces the history of Ladakh’s connections with the Hors—people of Turkic origin from north of the Karakoram mountains—stretching back a thousand years. According to this account, around the 10th century AD, a chieftain named Gyapa Cho in upper Indus faced repeated raids by the Hors, who crossed the Karakoram Pass to plunder the region. Hearing of Skyid lde nyi ma mgon the founder of the Ngari Khorsum Empire, Gyapa Cho invited him to counter these incursions, offering land in Shey as a reward. 

It is also mentioned in the Ladags Gyalrabs that in the 16th century, King Tsewang Namgyal of Ladakh considered launching a counter-invasion into the Hors’ territory across the Karakoram, but the people of Nubra, reliant on trade with the Hors, persuaded him to abandon the plan to safeguard their economic interests.

Stanzin recalls that during his youth, the Hors arrived in Nubra each summer, traveling in camel caravans over the Saser La Pass and descending through Tulum Putit La into the Nubra Valley at Sasoma. In Panamik, they would camp at Bhap Kothi, a storage area used by the Dogra government to collect taxes from villagers from Panamik and nearby settlements. This site served as a vital camping point for the Hors before they continued on to Leh. Stanzin also mentions an old practice called Nangskor, where the Hors camped on lands owned by specific Nubra families, using the grass for animal feed. Typically, a Hor trader traveled with about 10 servants, known as Chakars, who cared for the animals and goods, set up tents, and prepared food. According to Stanzin, the trader, the leader of the group was addressed as Bhai. The Hors brought items such as Kaleen (carpets), silk, and Baang and Charas (forms of cannabis); the scent of charas was strong, easily noticed as their camel caravans, loaded with goods, passed through Nubra. The Hors traded for cash, grazing rights, and collected medicinal plants: Mandok from Ladakh.

The Hor caravans typically consisted of two groups: traders, who moved on to Leh, and pilgrims (Hajis) who journeyed through Zojila to Kashmir and continued to Mecca, possibly by sea. They traveled through Nubra Valley, stopping at Panamik, Terisha, Kyagar, Terit, and other villages before crossing Khardung La to reach Leh. In winter, they took the Chang La Pass. Conscious of the harsh winter, the Hors aimed to return in Ston (autumn) before the passes closed. Stanzin recalls that some traders from Hoshiarpur in Leh often joined the Hors caravans to Yarkand in autumn to trade and returned the following summer. Many Hajis, however, did not return to Ladakh, possibly taking alternate routes after completing their pilgrimage.

Travelers from both Ladakh and Yarkand made the journey, returning once the passes reopened, but some chose to settle in new lands. Stanzin remembers a man named Gulam from the Lakjungpa family who moved to Yarkand with his family. Similarly, some Hors decided to settle in Ladakh, like Ahsan Bhai from Hargam village, a descendant of Yarkandi parents who established himself permanently in Nubra.

According to Stanzin, in the first half of the 20th century when the Leh-Yarkand trade was on, the Hors were so integrated into Nubra’s life that, Ladakhis along the Panamik route would use Hor words into their daily language. Common terms included “Su” for water, “keling  keling” for “come,” “At” for horse,  and “Ishak” for donkey.

Stanzin lists out examples to cite the legacy of the now abadoned Leh-Yarkand trade preserved in Turkic-origin place names along the route. For example, Daulet Beg Oldie, meaning “place where the rich man died,” in Turki language, refers to Said Khan of Yarkand, who perished there in the 14th century. His nephew, Mirza Haider, who invaded Ladakh with him, records his conquests—including the massacre of Nubra residents who resisted him—in the Tariq-e-Rashidi. Another location, Sultan Chusku, according to Stanzin is named after a wealthy Hor trader named Sultan, who frequently used it as a resting and grazing ground. Other place names, such as Chong Kumdan (large dam), Kichik Kumdan (small dam), Chongthar (“big boulder”), and Ak Tash (“white stone”) near Saser Brangsa, retain the influence of the Hor language and mark their historical presence in Nubra.

According to Stanzin these exchanges and interactions continued until the early 1950s, when political tensions and border issues at the Karakoram Pass ended the Hors’ visits. By 1955, with closed borders and shifting geopolitics, the Hors’ travels to Ladakh came to a permanent end.

Wangdus Nurbu Kalon

Wangdus Nurbu Kalon, now 83, from Tegar village in Nubra, Ladakh, was born into the prominent Srah-ngara family of Leh. This distinguished family played a significant role in the famous Lopchak trade missions from Ladakh to Tibet, an integral part of Ladakh’s historic trade network. His great grandfather, Dawa Shah, and uncle, Tonyot Shah, who frequently led these missions, were important central figures in the 20th-century trade history of Ladakh. Although Wangdus moved to Nubra in 1962, his early years in Leh gave him rare firsthand experience of the Hors’ visits to Leh—an experience few Ladakhis share today.

The Hors journeyed to Leh by crossing Saser La, Tulum putit La to Sasoma then crossing the Nubra valley finally descending down the Khardungla to enter Leh. Wangdus recalls the annual arrival of the Hors, each summer. The men traders were referred to as Khwaja, and the women as Khanum. His ancestral land in Leh was a favored stop for the Hors, along with other traditional resting places like the current police station Leh and the Sarai at Zangsti now a parking lot and public restroom. At Zangsti, a two-story building offered the Hors accommodations on the upper level, while their camels, horses, and notably large donkeys were kept below.

The Hors brought with them long-grain basmati rice, raisins, and sheep with large, fatty tails—a delicacy shared with locals who bought meat at the traders’ camps. Wangdus remembers them brewing Kawa chai, known as Singyaa, in a Samawar, a Central Asian kettle. After trading in Leh, the Hors would often continue to Kashmir, leaving their camels behind, and return months later carrying spices.

Wangdus recalls a phrase from the Hors, “Yaxshi ba, qaytsi bama, qandaq ka le ma.” a loose translation would mean something close to - "good, are you going back" ? They also used the term “Obdang” frequently as a word of praise. The Hors brought valuable items like kaleen (carpets) and other Yarkandi goods, and Wangdus’ family, one of the wealthier families in Nubra, still has a collection of Yarkandi items, including carpets and utensils.

One particular memory stands out: A Deputy Commissioner of Ladakh, a frequent visitor to Nubra, and a friend of the Kalon family, enjoyed a song celebrating the memory of visiting Hors, sung by one Tsewang from Terisha. Though the Hors no longer visit Ladakh, the song endures, and Wangdus remembers the Deputy Commissioner's delight as Tsewang performed, balancing on one leg, jumping and singing, “Achir Khan lo, Wachir Khan lo, wai wai jaan, Yarkand Khwaja Obdan, wai wai bhai jaan,” as the Deputy Commissioner  laughed and clapped along. This song, rich with memories of the Hors, remains a treasured piece of Nubra’s history.

Phunstog Stobdan Vir Chakra

Havaldar Punchok Stobdan, Vir Chakra, now 86 and from the Khampa Gongma family in Panamik village, Nubra, is a distinguished veteran of two wars. He was awarded, The Chief of Army Staff Commendation Card, in 1962 and later received the Vir Chakra for his bravery in the 1971 war with Pakistan.

In his youth, Stobdan recalls the annual arrival of the Hors—Yarkandi traders—each summer, typically in the 4th or 5th month when the Saser La pass reopened. Traveling in small groups of 5-6, the traders would suddenly descend into Nubra with over a hundred camels, a breathtaking sight in the valley. According to Stobdan, traders on the Leh-Yarkand route meticulously planned their loads, balancing up to 50 kg in sturdy Pyingpa bags on each horse and adjusting the width to fit the Leh-Yarkand trade route’s narrowest sections, only 6.5 feet across.

In Panamik, a government-run Godown served as a tax collection center, where villagers contributed a portion of their harvest. Upon arrival, the Hors would first visit the Kutidar, the official in charge of the Godown, presenting certificates from Yarkandi authorities that entitled them to a free barley supply as part of an agreement established under British jurisdiction over the Leh-Yarkand trade route. Some Hors cleaned the barley to take to Leh, while others used it as animal feed, and some took it to local grinders to make Phey (flour).

The Hors typically camped for 3-4 days near the Kutti Godown in Panamik and on private lands owned by various families, including Stobdan’s ancestral home. This arrangement, known as Nangskor, allowed the Hors to stay with specific families in Nubra each year and use their Olthang (grass fields) as fodder for their animals in exchange of gifts from Yarkand.

Stobdan’s grandfather, Sonam Tsepal, was highly respected among the Hors and frequently traveled to Yarkand. Known for his exceptional horses, Sonam often rented them to the Hors to transport goods back to Yarkand, often accompanying them himself. According to Stobdan, the Hors’ servants, known as Chakars, set up tents across Panamik. They would cook fragrant basmati rice from Yarkand, its aroma spreading through the valley and making it a beloved delicacy among the people of Nubra. The traders also brought sheep with distinctive round, fatty tails, which they prepared and cooked at their campsites.

The Hors traded items such as carpets, Namda, and Pyingpa of different types - Kha Marpo—some adorned with mentok (floral) designs and others left plain. They also brought silk and precious metals like gold and silver, locally known as Gyastat. Charas was another popular item, and Stobdan recalls a Charas Munshi, an official at Panamik who oversaw the entry of Charas from Central Asia into Ladakh. The people of Nubra frequently bought animals from the Hors, with horses priced at Rs. 1 and donkeys at 8 annas. A person named Labor Rigzin was known for owning a camel, while the Kalon family owned the largest collection of animals in the area. The Hors often stored goods with locals in Nubra, and collecting them  the following year.

Like Wangdus Nurbu and Stanzin Tsewang, Stobdan remembers phrases in the Hor language, such as "Bugun Tureyan Bar miz" loosely  meaning “Would you stay back?” 

 *The author extends sincere gratitude to the Honorable Councillor of Panamik, Tsering Sangdup le, for his invaluable support in facilitating this visit.

Note: The author has used phonetic Hor/Uyghur words in this article and may have occasionally erred in transcribing the exact words due to note-taking inaccuracies. Any misinterpretations are due to the author’s limited understanding and will be clarified through follow-up interviews during the next visit to Nubra. The article will be edited and revised accordingly.

Hoshiarpur Traders of Ladakh

Raj Kumar Sethi

Raj Kumar Sethi’s grandfather, Shri Lahori Lal Sethi, came to Ladakh in the 1930s from Hoshiarpur in Punjab “to look for greener pastures.” At that time, the only non-local businessmen in Leh were from Hoshiarpur and Himachal Pradesh. His grandfather arrived in Ladakh with one of the Hoshiarpur traders who were already settled in Ladakh. His father, Shri Omkarnath Singh, later joined his grandfather. In Ladakh, Raj Kumar Sethi’s family was known as the Lahorimals. The family owned property in both Leh and Kargil until the 1970s. While they still own their ancestral property in Leh, the property in Kargil has since been transferred to someone in Kargil town..

In 1947, rumours spread that Pakistan was going to overtake Ladakh, prompting many traders to leave. Raj Kumar’s father returned to Hoshiarpur, where he set up a cloth business. In 1951, he returned to Ladakh to restart his old business, and later, in 1955, his mother joined him. Three of his four sisters were born in Ladakh. In 1966-67, they bought their current palatial house in Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi.

Raj Kumar was 17 years old when he first came to Ladakh in 1969. After finishing his Higher Secondary School, his parents decided to send him to Ladakh to take care of the family business. In those days, there were no commercial airlines to Ladakh. The only way to reach Ladakh was through the Srinagar route or by taking an army airplane from Chandigarh. The journey from Srinagar to Leh would take three weeks on khachchar (mule) and horses, and his elder brother often used this route.

To fly on an army aircraft, one had to get permission from officials in Udhampur and then wait for flight dates in Chandigarh. Raj Kumar distinctly remembers the 31st of May, 1969, when he landed at Spituk Airport. The airport was nothing more than an empty field, with no one in sight. From a distance, Raj Kumar could see a Jeep at the base of Spituk Gompa. After leaving his attache, which was safe since there was nobody to steal it at the remote airstrip, Raj Kumar walked to the Jeep. The driver, Ghani, worked for the DC office and had come to drop off some VIPs. He requested Ghani if he could take him to Leh Shaher. After the VIPs had taken off, Ghani offered Raj Kumar a lift. They drove to Balkhang Chowk, where a large protest was taking place in the market. Incidentally, this protest that Raj Kumar witnessed on his very first day in Ladakh was a very important event in the post-independence history of Ladakh, which would be covered separately. From there, crossing the protestors, Raj Kumar walked the short two-minute distance to his house and shop.

While the food habits remained the same as he lived with his parents, Raj Kumar had to make an effort to understand Ladakhi, especially when customers from distant villages came to the shop. Many didn’t understand Hindi, but soon enough, Raj Kumar started making friends.

During that time, the Ohris were among the most popular families from Hoshiarpur settled in Leh. Their firm, Shaadi Lal Dwarka Nath, served as a one-stop shop for all the needs of the Ladakhi community. Locals affectionately referred to them as Lala Shaadilal. Even today, many elderly Ladakhis recall buying items from Lala Shaadilal’s Hatti. Sometime in the second half of the 20th century, one branch of the Ohris moved to Mumbai. It is believed that they gifted their property in Ladakh to Pandit Bihari Lal and his brother Hridya Ram, who worked for them. The brothers later sold the property to some Kashmiris. Pandit Bihari Lal’s sons migrated to Himachal Pradesh in the 1980s, while Hridya Ram’s son, Krishan Kumar, remained in Ladakh until the 1990s. In Hoshiarpur, there is a Sethio-ka Mohalla (Sethi’s neighborhood). According to Raj Kumar, his father and he met Shaadilal Ohri and his son Dwarkanath Ohri there.

In those days, shopkeepers in Ladakh didn’t specialize in any particular goods. They sold everything that could be used in Ladakh, particularly daily essentials. Back in his shop, Raj Kumar traded in hardware, footwear, clothing, chai, dye colors,  rations, and other items. He even sold glasses used for windows, which came in only two sizes back then: 10 by 12 and 8 by 12 inches. Green tea and dye was sourced from Amritsar. Pre-independence, Amritsar was the trading capital of North India, with Delhi's importance emerging later. Some traders also transported opium from Amritsar to Central Asia. While they continued sourcing clothes and chai from Amritsar, soon groceries were obtained from Srinagar, which had begun developing into a commercial hub. Wholesalers extended credit, and traders like Raj Kumar conducted FOA (Forward on Account) transactions. According to Raj Kumar, there wasn’t much profit for the traders, and whatever they earned during the five months of summer was exhausted during the winter months when business was slow. Additionally, the general population was poor, and people had very limited money.  

Since phones were not popular, traders wrote letters to their suppliers in Srinagar, and goods would arrive accordingly. The volume of business was also small. Raj Kumar recalls that making Rs 250-300 a day was considered very good, and if business reached Rs 1,000, it was cause for celebration. Cashew nuts cost Rs 16 per kg, turmeric was Rs 2 per kg, and chili powder was Rs 2.25. Only solid salt from the plains was sold. For a long time, Raj Kumar and other traders struggled to sell salt because the MRP was Rs 2 per kg, while transportation costs from Delhi via Amritsar were Rs 1. The local administration insisted that traders could not sell above the MRP. The best quality Ladakhi tea used to cost Rs 8 per kg, which now costs over Rs 300. Raj Kumar also witnessed Ladakhis paying for groceries with pashmina. A large portion of their earnings came from Yarkandi and Kashgari traders who visited Leh in caravans after crossing the Karakoram Pass and traded with them. Business boomed for the Lahorimal family, and soon they were one of the top business families in Ladakh. Over time, local entrepreneurs like Mr. Tashi from the Shali family emerged as leading businessmen, along with Trilok Chand,  and Riaz Ahmed. They all sold similar goods.

Raj Kumar spent 44 years in Leh. During this time, he had a very successful business career. His last visit to Ladakh was in 2018. If not for his health, he would still go to his home in Leh and meet his friends there. His best friends from Leh include Nazir Khan, Dorjee Lakrook, Asgar Deen Darokhan, and Mateen Tak. He misses his friends dearly. After all these years, he now has to make new friends in Delhi, which is very difficult for him.

Salt, Rolex, Ladakh to Calcutta.

Rigzin Namgyal and Tashi Namgyal

Rigzin Namgyal, 89 as of 2021 from Sakti village in Ladakh, India, spent his early youth as a successful trader, undertaking biannual journeys, Yar-Gun—summer and winter trips—to Changthang and Tibet. Much of this time was dedicated to trading in western Tibet until the Chinese occupation disrupted traditional trade routes.

In summer, Rigzin Namgyal engaged in Yar-tsong or summer trade, traveling to distant regions including Rudok, Rawang, Thok, and Hundur. Rudok, a picturesque town with a monastery and a fort, was home to about 60 to 70 families. He and his companions carried goods like Phating, Chuli, Phey, rice, and eggs. To protect the eggs from breaking, the Ladakhi traders employed an innovative technique, carefully packing them in Pakphey (wheat flour). These items were exchanged for the prized Bal and Lena in Tibet. In winter, he frequently visited Maga, a vast grazing land near Rudok that provided pasture for horses from Sakti and Chemrey. Maga was expansive enough to support thousands of horses, yaks, and other livestock, and he fondly recalled seeing around a thousand Kyangs, along with yaks and Raluks, in that area.

During his journeys, Rigzin discovered several salt sources, particularly at Rajok Tso, where salt was harvested and dried in the sun. His travels in Tibet also took him to gold mines like Munak Thok, Rathok Thok, and Myanmo Thok, located about ten days east of Rudok. Although gold panning, as was common throughout the Himalayas, was not particularly lucrative, it provided a livelihood for many impoverished miners, who paid a tax known as ser-go-thal, amounting to 10 annas (with 16 annas equating to one rupee). Aba Rigzin continued his trading trips to Rudok until 1962, when the Chinese invasion disrupted the region.

In Ladakh, salt markets in Chemrey and Sakti were held twice a year, during the summer and autumn months. Buyers traveled from distant places like Shigar and Skardu in Baltistan. Rigzin Namgyal could easily distinguish Shigar Baltis from Skardu Baltis by their complexions, noting that Skardu Baltis generally had fairer skin. The Baltis traded items such as Phating and mulberries. The summer market was hosted in Dabung in Sakti village, where a Beakon office now stands, while the autumn market took place near Chemrey Monastery in fields known as Thaka Zukhan. The exchange rate for salt and barley fluctuated; standard quality salt was typically equivalent in quantity to barley, though poor-quality salt could require three battis (approximately 6 kg) for one batti of barley.

During this period, Hor traders entered Ladakh through the Changla Pass. Many Ladakhis in Sakti and Chemrey spoke the Hor language, enabling residents like Ajang Tsewang and Tokpo Skalzang to communicate with them. The Hor traders brought Phingpa, Kaleen, tea, and Chakman. They traveled with horses, camels, and donkeys, always on the lookout for grazing grounds for their animals. People in Sakti and Chemrey would trade local grass for the prized Central Asian items brought by the Hor traders, creating a vibrant trading opportunity for all. 

Rigzin’s friend, Tashi Namgyal, 84, as of 2021, reminisced about European explorers arriving in the Rong area with advanced equipment, drilling into rocks and building chain bridges across the Indus River, while locals carried their belongings in palkis.

In those days, government teaching positions were plentiful due to a shortage of educated Ladakhis. Rigzin Namgyal secured a role in the education department, teaching in various locations in Changthang, including Kyungyam, Hemya, and Shara. Between the late 1950s and early 1960s, while stationed as a government school teacher in Chushul, he witnessed significant events in Indian military history, including the return of Deputy Superintendent Karam Singh after the Hot Springs incident. Following the 1962 war with China, Aba Rigzin  travelled with the team tasked in a mission to retrieve the remains of the legendary Major Shaitan Singh and his men from Rezang La, becoming one of the first to reach the site of Major Shaitan Singh's martyrdom.

A notable episode in Rigzin's trading career involved a cheque for 6,000 tibetan currency from a business partner in Tibet. Unable to cash it in Leh due to foreign currency issues, he traveled all the way to Calcutta, where the only bank that could handle the transaction was located. After struggling to find a guarantor, a Nepali trader at the Mahabodhi Society where Aba Rigzin was staying offered assistance. While in Calcutta, Rigzin seized the opportunity to purchase expensive Rolex and Omega watches, along with Sheaffer and Parker pens, which were highly valued among the rich in Tibet. He also made trips to Amritsar and then to Kashmir to buy rice, which he transported for trade in Changthang.

The above interview was conducted in 2021.

Last of the Traders

Tashi Stanba

Tashi Stanba, a centenarian from Domkhar village in Ladakh, is one of the last surviving traders from an era when Ladakhi merchants ventured into Baltistan to sell tsa (salt), bal (wool), and pul (soda). While Tashi's father, Aba Chamba, bought salt at the annual salt markets in Chemrey and Sakti, his elder brother preferred traveling to the remote Changthang region to acquire wool. Among all the goods brought by the Ladakhi traders, salt was in particularly high demand in Baltistan. 

On his maiden trip to Khaplu in Baltistan, Stanba, along with his elder brother and four companions, set out with seven donkeys loaded with Tsa, Bal, and Pul. They traveled via the Achinathang-Hanu Phu-Chorbat La route, passing through an area where the Turtuk Chu (Shyok River) meets another river before reaching Khaplu. The journey from Domkhar to Khaplu took seven days. Along the way, they stopped at a Sandog, which had a large goat population. There, they purchased a goat, which they later feasted on upon reaching Khaplu.

Upon reaching Khaplu, they set up a base at a Brangsa near the town, where the Baltis greeted them with food. In return, the Ladakhi traders offered salt as gift. Tashi recalled an interesting tradition in Baltistan: when the Baltis received salt from Ladakh, they would swallow a handful in one go. In his case, the locals consumed an entire cupful of salt in one gulp. The demand for Ladakhi salt was high, and the Baltis often competed for a share of the limited supply. Each morning, the Ladakhi traders would rise early to finish their meal before the Baltis arrived, as their bustling presence stirred up dust and made cooking more difficult. 

During his stay in Khaplu, Tashi Stanba and his companions had the unique opportunity to witness a polo match featuring the local chieftain, known as the Cho, who they were told was a descendant of Buddhist ancestors. They learned that the Khar (fort) in Khaplu housed copies of the Kangyur and Tangyur, sacred Buddhist texts that served as a reminder of their heritage. After the match, when the Ladakhi traders were trying to find their way back to the Brangsa, the Cho came to their aid and guided them home. Stanba and the other traders spent about ten days in Khaplu, returning with Phating (dried apricots), dried mulberries and  Mar (butter). Although Tashi Stanba cannot recall the exact year or his age at the time of his visit to Khaplu, he distinctly remembers that it occurred during the Dogra rule.

Balti traders frequently visited Domkhar, Sham, and other parts of Ladakh. According to Tashi Stanba, over 100 Baltis would pass through Domkhar each year, traveling to various parts of Ladakh to sell butter and Doltok (stone utensils) of different sizes. These goods were carried on wooden frames called Kis-Kis, which were strapped to their backs. When the Baltis grew tired, they would remain standing but rest by placing a stick under the Kis-Kis to relieve the load. Some Balti traders could carry up to 50 Battis (each Batti weighing about 2 kg) of butter at once, selling them for Rs 2.5 per Batti in Domkhar. The Baltis exchanged Doltoks for barley, using a unique method: they filled each selected Doltok to the brim to determine the quantity of barley for the final exchange.

In his youth, Tashi Stanba operated a small shop in Domkhar, selling essentials like matchboxes, Pakphey (wheat flour), and Marnak (mustard oil). To stock his shop, he frequently traveled to Kashmir, visiting places like Batamaloo where he purchased Marnak for Rs 5 per tin. On one occasion, when they were stuck in Kashmir due to the closure of traffic to Ladakh,Stanba and his companions sought help from Sonam Nurbo Sahib, who was then a minister in the Jammu and Kashmir government. Thanks to his intervention, they were escorted to Kargil, and from there, a police vehicle took them till Khalatse.

Tashi Stanba attributes much of Ladakh's development to the 19th Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Sonam Nurbo Sahib. He believes that through the efforts of Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib, Ladakh saw significant progress, including the arrival of airplanes. He remembered seeing an airplane for the first time and offering Chak (a salutation) to express his gratitude to both Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib.

The above interview was conducted in 2021.

100 years of Ladakh : Aba Mohd Hassan

Mohd Hassan

Born in 1922, Mohd Hassan, a resident of Leh, Ladakh, India, attended a school that was started by the Shia community of Leh, in Chutey Rantak, Leh, in 1915. Mohd Hassan recalls the teachers of that time: Bah Nabi, Munshi Hussain (the father of Dr. Ramzan), Kharmangpa, Akhon Ahmed ( Sheikh Mirza’s father ). These teachers were paid Rs. 5 per month. According to Mohd Hassan, his school years were marked by a mixture of progress and setbacks. He admitted that he often alternated between passing and failing and frequently dropped out and re-enrolled, reflecting the challenges of staying in school during that era. 

Mohd Hassan cherished his school days and deeply appreciated the efforts of the community to sustain the school in Chutey Rantak. Unfortunately, the school faced severe financial dificulties in the 1940s. In an attempt to save it, the Muslim community of Leh pooled together a significant sum of Rs. 40,000. This money was used to purchase Bal and Lena from the local market, and a man named Sheikh Ali, a native of Baltistan, was entrusted with selling the stock in Kashmir to generate additional funds for the school. Sadly, Sheikh Ali never returned, and the school was forced to close in 1945.

In between, after finishing class five, Mohd Hassan’s parents decided to continue his studies and enrolled him in a middle school in Leh, where the late Shri P. Namgyal, one of Ladakh's foremost political leaders, was his classmate in Class 6. His other classmates included Wangdan,Togochey, from Stok who was in boarding, Sonam from Phyang Gondarey, and Maj Tsetan Phunsok from Hunder. Shri P. Namgyal’s elder brother, the legendary Col Rinchen, was also in school with them in Class 7. Zomdey Ka Tashi Punsok, who had been posted as a teacher in Skardo, Shigar and Kharmang, was Aba Hassan’s tuition master. At that time, there was no school beyond Class 8 in Ladakh, and anyone interested in further studies had to go to Srinagar. Mohd Hassan didn’t pursue further studies and was soon inducted into the Army. Later, as circumstances allowed, he joined the Ladakh Police.

Mohd Hassan has fond memories of Changthang, where he was posted for many years. In 1952, while in service, Jawaharlal Nehru visited Ladakh in a Dakota plane that landed in a remote region. Nehru was accompanied by Indira Gandhi, who was a young girl at the time, along with Sheikh Abdullah and some senior ministers of the Government of India. This was the first time Mohd Hassan tasted mithai (Indian sweets), which was distributed by the local administration. He also recalls that at one time, Katcho Mohd Ali Khan from Kargil was the SDM in Nyoma.

Once while in Changthang with Tashi Namgyal of the Bandepa family and a two-star officer named Ghulam Rasool they went to Phobrang village to meet  the Goba (the village Headman) named Chopel, a very wealthy man with over 1,000 raluks (goats and sheep). To their surprise, none of the 15-20 families were at home. Only one elderly woman remained in the village. She informed them that a Lama Chenmo (a senior Lama) had come to visit the village, and all the villagers had gone to attend his teachings. When Mohd Hassan and his companions arrived at the gathering, they found the villagers listening to the Lama and asking him questions. The session lasted until 4 p.m., after which it was Ghulam Rasool’s turn. The Lama looked into a khatak (ceremonial scarf) and told Ghulam Rasool that there was a gathering in his house in Leh and that he should prepare for unpleasant news. After returning to Phobrang village, Goba Chopel insisted on slaughtering a goat for the group, but Ghulam Rasool was not in the mood for a celebration and insisted on returning to their base in Chushul. They reached Chushul that night, around 2 a.m., where a message was waiting for them that a member of Ghulam Rasool’s family had passed away. Mohd Hassan and Ghulam Rasool quickly borrowed two horses from the Kotwal and traveled back via the Muglib route.

Mohd Hassan is one of the few people who witnessed a little-known event in Ladakhi history. Somewhere between the late 1940s and early 1950s Ladakh saw the sudden arrival of hundreds of Kazakhs fleeing from atrocities. They were armed and arrived with their families, women, children, and livestock. According to Aba Hassan, they also had valuables, apparently looted from Tibetan monasteries and nomads during their journey to India. Soon they were allowed to set up temporary camps at Choglamsar, Skara Yokma Spang, and Shey. Desperate and tired, they were willing to barter generously with their possessions. Mohd Hassan would go to Skara with chunpo, for which he would receive one sheep. He would buy yaks and horses from the Kazakhs, purchasing a yak and a horse for Rs. 2 each, and then selling them for Rs. 3 and Rs. 3.5 in the market. One sheep was exchanged for a single roti (bread). In those days, law and order were maintained by Col Abdul Majid of the Kashmir government. After a few months, in early 1950s in the month of October or November, the Kazakhs were shifted on foot, out of Ladakh, through the Zojila Pass. Many of them died on the way, but a few managed to reach Baltal in Kashmir, and it is believed that they were later settled in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Years later, while in Srinagar with Ramatullah of the Sergar family and Wakhapa Rigzin, Mohd Hassan, along with another person from Kargil, visited Col Abdul Majid, who had retired and settled in Resham Khana near Batamaloo, Srinagar. Majid’s house was decorated with expensive Kazakh items, which he claimed to have bought from the Kazakhs.

Before 1947, traders known as Hors (from Xinjiang) and Karjapas (from Himachal) would visit Leh. The Hors would visit Leh in ston (autumn) and would buy olthang (grass fields) in places like Horzey, Kyokpey Olthang, and Choskorpe where they would keep their camels, horses, and donkeys. They would set up small markets in Leh and sell carpets, wool, charok, kampis, basho, and almonds. They would even sell horses; a horse was sold for Rs. 25, and Rs. 1 was paid as a commission to anyone who helped with the sale. Mohd Hassan still remembers how the Hors would announce “Nye da Baram” in the Uyghur language, meaning “Where are you going?” and “Nye may Kalem,” meaning “What are you doing?”. 

Mohd Hassan believed that Hors after crossing the Karakoram Pass, would part ways in Shyok valley: some moved to Leh through Khardung La or Chang La, while others moved toward Baltistan along the Shyok River. Aba Hassan also heard strange stories from Ladakhis, especially Chushotpas and Nubrapas, who traveled with the Hors to Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO). They claimed to hear the sound of galloping horses at night, which the Hors attributed to King Gesar’s horses. They also reported seeing dead bodies that appeared lifelike but would turn to dust when touched. Then there were tales of people finding treasures left behind by the Hors. One story involved someone finding a horjon (a double bag used by the Hors on horseback) containing traditional kulchas (small breads). When each kulcha was broken, a gold coin was found inside. The Hors reportedly carried these coins to avoid customs at the Karakoram Pass. 

Besides the Hors, the Karjapa traders would travel on horses with their servants, selling smandok (medicinal ingredients), kuram, cha, ras, tarchok, pabbu, and das (rice). Unlike the Hors, they would stay near the mountains for 6-7 days, setting up their tents in Gangles, Chomchala, Kugala, Lgeuma, and Smanla, where their servants would take care of the horses.

Reminiscing about the time when Leh was the summer capital and Skardo was the winter capital of Ladakh, Mohd Hassan recalled the Darbar shift system. One of his tutor’s friends, Katcho Raza of Skardu, would accompany the commissioner from Skardu in May and return in October. Even the dogs were carried on palkis. The team included the cooks, office kanungo, munshis and other officers, in total about 20-30 people. The commissioner was the highest-ranking official. They would stay in Leh for six months, similar to the Darbar shift in Kashmir. This practice was discontinued after India’s independence in 1947.

Before 1947, Leh had a very small deployment of forces under the Dogras. According to Mohd Hassan there were only 15-20 sepoys at Zorawar Fort, who were responsible for guarding the government Treasury. A similar number of sepoys were stationed in Kargil Treasury. Mohd Hassan recalled hearing that before Zorawar Fort was built, a ruined fort had stood in its place. He had also heard stories of Mirza Haider, who invaded Ladakh in the 1530s, destroying the fort by flooding it. Mohd Hassan remembers that when he was a young boy, the fort was repaired, and laborers were paid a daily wage of 4 annas for their work. 

In Leh, there was a Kotwal (police officer) who earned Rs. 8 per month. Mohd Hassan remembers one Kadir, from the Kalam family, who was a one-star officer. If transferred to Skardo, the Kotwal’s salary increased to Rs. 12. The same applied to any official transferred from Skardo to Leh. Initially, the thana (police station) was located in the new bazaar, but it was later shifted to Hors Sarai Kongma, which had been used as a Sarai (inn) by the Hor traders. The Sarai Yokma was taken over by the armed forces and eventually converted into quarters, which were constructed by an engineer from the Marstelang Cho family. Mohd Hassan also recalled that there was a Charas godown near Chutey Rantak, which was later given to Munshi Isa and Pir Sahib in exchange for land taken from them during road construction. In those days, the Hors bought Charas, which the Karjapa traders would then transport on horses to the plains. Mohd Hassan mentioned that there was a customs godown near Balkhang where Charas duties were collected, but he was unsure of its fate. Other customs sites in Ladakh included Balukhar in Khalste and a site near the present-day Khardongla Hotel, close to Chubi and Chutey Rantak. A Bangey Munshi (scribe) used to reside near Hemis Labrang.

Mohd Hassan also fondly remembered the days of Dosmochey, a festival. Three days before the festival, Skutaks from Leh would go to Stok to invite the Stok King to the Leh Palace. On the day of the festival, the Skutaks of Leh would welcome the Aba Gyapo (the king) and Abhi Gyamo (the queen) with a grand Kalchor and Spos. The Skutaks would follow them on 50-60 horses. This would be followed by a dance at Khardok Chenmo and a Larna.

Two rounds of interviews over three years with Mohd Hassan le revealed many fascinating and lesser-known aspects of Ladakhi history. His life is a treasure trove of experiences from early 20th-century Ladakh, and his memories provide valuable insights into the culture and history of the region. His rich experiences should be professionally documented, as few people in Ladakh have lived such an extraordinary and impactful life.

Tashi Rigzin, Photoksar, Sengge Lalok, Ladakh

Tashi Rigzin

Tashi Rigzin, 62, originally from Photoksar village, and now residing in Chushot, Leh, reflects on the past when Photoksar, with its fertile grazing lands, was home to large herds of yak and demo. The locals produced surplus butter and churpi, which they traded in nearby regions. Tashi fondly recalls his childhood, especially the time after the annual barley harvest during the ston season (autumn), when his grandfather would journey to Spang Chenmo in Sakti village to secure the family’s yearly supply of salt. To purchase the salt, his grandfather would either take money or Chuli-Phaating (dried apricots), which he had bartered on the way, in the area around Khalsi village for homemade butter or churpi. In Sakti, his grandfather exclusively traded with trusted Changpa traders, who he called  Dzagos ( friends). 

In those days, the Sengge-la pass, connecting Photoksar and Zanskar to the Sham area was only open for a few months in summer. Due to the scarcity of grazing land in Yurchung and Nyerak, villagers from those areas would bring their livestock near to Photoksar for grazing in the 4th month of the Ladakhi calendar and return before Ston just before the harvest. There was a longstanding agreement that their animals would not cross beyond Maneychan Tokpo (a stream), a rule enforced by the Goba members  (village leaders). The people of Photoksar frequently sold butter in Leh, and they occasionally sold yak and demo to visitors from Tia and Timosgang villages. 

Before the construction of the new motorable road to Zanskar, two main routes connected Photoksar to the Indus Valley. In summer, traveling from Hanupatta to Wanla villages beyond a spot called Demdemcha was treacherous due to the swollen rivers, which sometimes carried away horses. This route was primarily used after the Ston season, when the water froze, making the passage safer. In warmer months, they followed the Wanla Chutsan route, exiting at Lamayuru village, where they purchased essential supplies. This journey involved an overnight stop near Chutsan, but during Ston, the route to Wanla could be completed in a single day. At Wanla, barley grown at Photoksar was traded for locally grown wheat and peas, with an equal exchange rate.

Due to Photoksar's cold climate, it was difficult for plants other than barley to flourish. Pea plants, if grown did not bear fruit and was often served as fodder for cattle. While many in Photoksar consumed peas from Wanla mixed with barley, Tashi preferred to plant the pea seeds solely to grow fodder for his livestock. He also remembers the Res system, where the people of Photoksar were required to provide free services to government officials traveling between Wanla and Yulsum. Occasionally, traders from Chiktan would come to the area to sell Doltoks (stone utensils). In earlier times, when resources were scarce, Tashi had heard from the elders that their ancestors would travel to Nyingti (a generic term used for Mandi and nearby places in Himachal Pradesh) to earn extra income through labor.

Among the Tibetan refugees of Ladakh

Nawang Tashi

Nawang Tashi, 88, a Tibetan refugee in Ladakh, India, hails from the Rawang region of Tibet, renowned for producing the finest Lena (Pashmina) in the entire Trans-Himalayan region. During his childhood Rawang consisted of small settlements, where most people lived in rebos (traditional nomadic tents). Only a few affluent families—no more than five—had permanent houses.

It has now been more than 60 years since Nawang arrived in India as a refugee, leaving behind his nomadic life in Rawang. Upon arrival, he initially settled in the Samay area near Tso Kar Lake in Changthang. Today, he lives with his relatives in Choglamsar village, Leh.

Before he was forced to become a refugee, Nawang, in his 20s, frequently visited Ladakh to trade salt from Tibet. Nawang Tashi vividly remembers his journeys to the famous Mindung Tsaka salt lakes, located three to four days’ travel north of Rawang. These lakes produced a rare mixture of red and white salt, known for its exceptional quality. Another key source of salt was Takthong Lungpa, about three days’ journey from Rawang, located towards Mansarovar Lake, a well-known reference point for distances and directions in ancient Tibet. Unlike Mindung Tsaka, which consisted of salt lakes, Takthong Lungpa had rocky cliffs from which salt was mined. However, the salt extracted from Takthong Lungpa was considered inferior to the premium quality salt from Mindung Tsaka. Once the salt from Mindung Tsaka was extracted and dried, Nawang and his community would load it onto around 500 sheep and embark on a month-long journey to Ladakh, heading towards the famous Chemrey salt market. At the market, the exchange rate was two measures of wheat for one measure of salt. Over the years, Nawang made three such trips to Ladakh to take part in this lively and bustling trade.

During his time in Tibet, Nawang owned nearly 1,000 sheep and goats, most of which were Changra goats, prized for their luxurious Pashmina wool. He fondly recalls annual visits by Muslim traders from Leh and Buddhist traders from the Sham region of Ladakh, who journeyed to Rawang to purchase yaks and Pashmina. According to Nawang, the superior quality of water, grass, and flowers in Rawang provided the Changra goats with exceptional nourishment, contributing significantly to their healthy growth and the luxurious quality of their Pashmina wool. The Pashmina hair would reach full growth during the fifth or sixth month of the Tibetan calendar, signaling the start of the combing season. For younger goats, the combing process typically took 4–5 days, while older goats required additional time to complete the process.

There was also a tradition of selecting about 4 to 5 male goats, known as Yangra or Phara, to mate with 100 female Changras. These male goats were chosen early in life based on their physical build and the quality of their hair growth, ensuring that only the best traits were passed on to future generations.

 Sonam Nurbu

Dondey Dolma

Sonam Nurbu, a 90-year-old from Tashigang, Tibet, and his 82-year-old wife, Dondey Dolma, moved to India in 1959, shortly after Losar, the Tibetan New Year. In Tibet, they led the life of Dokpas, dedicated to herding livestock across the region's expansive plains. While trading in India was never part of their routine, they often journeyed to the Tsokar area in Ladakh, India, during the summer months. The plentiful grasslands of Changthang  offered richer grazing opportunities compared to the pastures in Tibet.

Tsokar would come alive as a bustling marketplace, drawing traders from all directions. Sonam Nurbu and his fellow Tibetans arrived with their flocks—sheep, yaks, horses, and goats. They sold their sheep to Ladakhi traders, who paid in cash, and Sonam used his earnings to buy nye (barley) from other Ladakhis in the market. These exchanges ensured he had the resources to support his family through the seasons ahead.

Tsetup Dorjey

Tsetup Dorjey, an 87-year-old from Otsang near Rudok in Tibet, arrived in India as a refugee in 1960. He is among the few who journeyed to the renowned Kyeltse salt lake, Tibet’s main source of salt for Ladakh along with Mindung Tsaka lake until 1962. Although he never visited the distant Mindung Tsaka, he did make trips to another salt lake called Thayee, closer to Otsang. The trek from Otsang to the lake took 10-12 days on foot, leading sheep laden with lugals (saddle bags) across vast, desolate plains without any signs of human habitation. Continuing onward from Otsang to Ladakh was an even greater challenge—a month-long journey over rugged terrain and isolated landscapes.

Tsetup traveled with a small group of 3-5 companions, bringing along around 100 sheep, each carrying lugals packed with salt. In Ladakh, he journeyed to Chemrey and further to Nubra, stopping in villages such as Sumur and Diskit. The typical exchange rate was 3 kg of salt for 2 kg of barley. After completing his trade, Tsetup also sold sheep and wool, with sheep shearing often done in Tangyar or Sakti Phu. 

    Sonam Tenzin

Sonam Tenzin, now 82, originally from Nyari, Tibet, moved to India in 1959. In Tibet, he led a nomadic life, relocating up to four times a year. During the summer, he would settle in Chutti, near the Indian border, while winters took him to Lamey, Yung Suruk—closer to the famous Mindum Tsaka Lake. This proximity allowed him to visit the lake during the ideal season—winter, specifically the first month of the Tibetan calendar.

From Yung Suruk, a round trip to Mindum Tsaka took about 15-20 days. The lake was celebrated for its unique types of salt: red salt, known as nyemo, and white salt, called dayuu, found in different sections of the lake. After gathering salt, Sonam would return to Yung Suruk to store it, often embarking on a second journey to Mindum for an additional supply.

He later ventured through Tashigang, traveling as far as Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and areas near the Nepal-India border for trade. The trek from Tashigang to Spiti took around 20 days each way, where he spent several weeks trading salt for rice, gyamdey(white grain), and tema nakpo (black grain). Rice was especially costly, sometimes requiring up to 15 kg of salt for just 1 kg of rice. By journey’s end, he would return with around 150 lugals of grain, half of the 300 lugals of salt he initially carried. In Ladakh, Sonam Tenzin also visited Chemrey and Nubra, engaging in trade and building connections with the people there.

Reflecting on his extensive travels, Sonam Tenzin remarked, "I came from where the sun rises to trade to where the sun sets." 

Trade routes of Zanskar

Namgyal Dorjey

In the past, the Zanskar region of Ladakh, India, remained isolated from the outside world during the winter months due to heavy snowfall. The Chadar trek through the frozen Zanskar river, which connects Zanskar to the Indus Valley, was the only popular winter route. However, during the summer, it was connected to surrounding areas through a network of passes from all directions. From the west, the Pensila Pass leads to the Suru Valley, where the road further diverges either to the Warwan Valley in Kashmir or to Drass through the Umba La Pass, or to Kargil District.  The southeastern Shinkula Pass leads to Darcha and Himachal Pradesh, while in the northeast, the Zunglam/Jumglam route through the Charcharla Pass was historically the most significant, leading to Dat in Kharnak Changthang or further to the Markha Valley. In the south, three main passes—Omasila, Akshow via Hangshula, and one near Bardang passing through Poat La Pass and Kangla Pass —connect Zanskar to other regions of Kishtwar. Namgyal Dorjey, 55 years, from Ating village, Zanskar, is one of the few people who have traversed nearly all of these passes.

Namgyal's journey across these passes began around the age of 18 when he accompanied his father on treks to Paddar in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir. Paddar, which lies south of the Zanskar mountain range, is known for its rich vegetation and abundance of wood. At that time, it was common for the people of Zanskar to barter peas grown in their region for various goods from Paddar. Wood, wool, Shing Khem (wooden shovels), Saldang (a bark used as a tea supplement), butter, rice, and Kangshil Tsotma or Lingdi, a vegetable the Himachalis used to make pickles were the popular commodities traders from Zanskar brought from Paddar. Namgyal's father would return from Paddar with dried Lingdi, which they would later soak in water, mix with milk, and cook as a vegetable. The Zanskaris also brought back Tau seeds (likely buckwheat) from Paddar, which they cultivated in Zanskar. According to Namgyal, the plant is believed to have cancer-fighting properties and is easy to digest, allowing one to eat it and immediately return to work.

With its frigid climate and sparse vegetation, Zanskar relied heavily on Paddar as a primary supplier of different kinds of wood for much of its history. According to Namgyal, Kero Shing was the most prized wood of all. Although not very thick, it was extremely strong. In Zanskar, it was commonly used for making window frames because its strength allowed them to maintain their shape for a very long time. Namgyal’s father once took four of his seven sons to Paddar, and on their return to Zanskar, each son carried seven logs of Kero wood.  Another type of wood, Stakpa, known for its durability, was used to craft a part of the wooden plough called Shol. The Dungma, or Yulat, was used in the construction of the Makdum/Bheem of a room. A less sought-after variety, called Raydung in Paddar, was primarily used as Talu during roof construction in Zanskar. However, in Paddar, Raydung was not valued highly and was often used as firewood. Som—known as Keylong Shing in Paddar—was used to make Khem (wooden shovels). Namgyal explained that Som wood is thicker and softer than any wood available locally in Zanskar, making it ideal for crafting single-piece, wider Khem, which are more effective for fieldwork. This was not possible with the limited amount of narrow wood commonly found in Zanskar. Additionally, Som wood is much easier to cut—"like butter," as Namgyal described it.

Namgyal observed that Zanskar's sparse vegetation also led to limited grazing areas and, consequently, fewer livestock. This scarcity of livestock caused a shortage of wool for clothing in the region. As a result, people in the Stod region of Zanskar relied on wool, or Bal, from Paddar, known for its high quality and was used directly to prepare garments without any mixing. While the Changpa traders are recorded to have carried Bal for trade in Zanskar, it’s possible that by the time they reached Ating and other villages at the end of their trade route, they had already exhausted their supply of Bal. This situation would have made the villages in the Stod region more dependent on wool from Paddar.

Before the 1990s, the trade routes used by the people of Zanskar were popular among foreign tourists for trekking, and Nawang, like many men from Zanskar and other parts of Ladakh, found lucrative opportunities to earn extra income as a tourist guide along these routes. However, it has been 15 years since Namgyal last traveled these routes, either for trade or as a tourist guide.

The most popular route from Zanskar to Paddar was via the Omasila Pass. Namgyal would trek from Ating to a location called Gowra, where they would spend the night at Kanju Pulu before making the crossing. In 1981-82, Namgyal's father and uncle constructed a shelter there, which had three rooms—two featuring Dungma roofs and one made entirely of stone. After Gowra, some travelers would stop at a place called Rooa, while others continued on to Kache Phangsa, known for its expansive snow-covered plains called Chashee Thang. More experienced trekkers could go directly from Kanju Pulu to Sumcham, the first inhabited village in Paddar. Namgyal recounts a surprising incident when his father crossed the Omasila to reach Paddar and returned to Ating on the same day.

Namgyal has also traveled from Akshow village through Hangshula Pass to Sumcham in Paddar, a challenging path with no proper trail, according to Namgyal it was- only ice at the bottom and pebbles on top. This route was tough and slow, taking five to six days. The ground was so tough that Namgyal and his fellow traveler Thinley's shoes tore before they could reach Paddar. While there are fewer climbs on this route than on the Omasila Pass, there is a lot of ice to scale. In contrast, the trek before the Omasila Pass from Zanskar is relatively plain, while the trek after the pass is snowy. On the Akshow side, there is ice on one side and relatively plain towards Paddar.

Thirty years ago, Namgyal also traversed the Kang La Pass route to Paddar, originating from a place near the Bardan Gompa. Along with a trekker named Maymay Rigzin and another friend, he covered the route, which was very long and full of glaciers. On the third day, they encountered a glacier, which according to Namgyal, was as long as the distance from 'Ating to Padum', a site where they slept on the icy glacier for the night. In the extreme cold of the night, Namgyal and friends could hear the ice cracking beneath them. The other side, after crossing the glacier and the Kangla Pass, was very beautiful with a long slope, making it the most beautiful of the three popular routes leading to Paddar. On the fourth day, they reached the temporary shelters of Gaddi nomads called Dangsa and then at a place called Pattenam-Sattenam in Udaipur, in Kistwar district of Jammu and Kashmir, which had lots of Shukpa (Juniper) growing. According to Namgyal, at the end of the trek at Udaipur, he met some tourists who wanted a guide through Shinkula Pass, so he took that as a return route to Zanskar.

Namgyal mentioned a fourth route from Zanskar to Paddar, which is the least used of all the known routes. It is occasionally utilized by the Zanskaris to purchase Palang (cattle) from Paddar, though he has never trekked along it himself. According to trekking maps of Zanskar, this route starts at a location called Paddar Lungpa near Sani village in Zanskar, crosses the Munni La Pass, and then connects with the Omasila Pass route at a place called Bagjan, eventually leading to Sumcham in Paddar.

Towards the northeast, Namgyal took the Junglam route from Zanskar, crossing Chacharla Pass near Zangla village and eventually reaching Markha valley. On the first day, they camped at the base of Charcharla. The trek itself lasted about five days. After crossing Charcharla on the second day, they arrived at Standongsa, a location that requires careful navigation, as a wrong choice between left and right can lead to confusion. The correct path is to the left, which is more open. Further along, they reached Chanchu Sumdo, another spot where the route can be confusing. After reaching Markha village, some travelers continued to Spituk village via the Gandala Pass, while Namgyal took a vehicle from Chilling village back to Leh.

Among the many passes in the region, the Junglam in the northeast and a series of passes in the southeast served as key routes for the Changpa nomads, who visited Zanskar to trade salt. The nomads would arrive in Ating right after the harvest season, and settle in a plain area in the village called Toksham near where a school stands today. The Changpas followed an age-old tradition of slaughtering a male sheep on the first night of their visit and inviting all families for a feast to symbolize their arrival. The trading of salt would begin the following day. The Zanskaris had a relationship called dZagos or friendship with known Changpa nomads, and the Changpa dZagos would prioritize trading with their Zanskari counterparts. Every year, a Changpa named Mutup, who was Namgyal's family dZago would visit them with their annual supply of salt. The exchange rate was two Lugals of salt for four Lugals of barley.

Until recent times, Zanskar was renowned for its native horses, which are now rare across the region. According to Namgyal, these famed Zanskari horses were categorized by their color and the quality of their ride. Based on color, the classifications included black, white, blue, Tomar, Shau (a mix of Tomar and black), and Nyangpa, which had two subtypes: Nyangkar and Nyangmar. The best riding horses are known as Yorga. There are two varieties of Yorga: the Zyangyor, which had a smooth ride but ran very fast and required a skilled rider, and the Lugyar, which was slower but offered the best ride quality. Horses gave birth at the age of four to five years; some gave birth every year, while others did so every alternate year. The age of a horse in Zanskar was measured in years, known as Killings. A horse could live up to 30 killings, though the origin of this term is unclear.

In the past, Zanskar had a tradition of Zyon-lop trainers who specialized in training non-Yorga horses to correct their gait and achieve a smooth motion, a process known as Yorga Lapches. The trainer would ride the young horse and gradually slow its steps, repeating this exercise over many days until the smooth gait became second nature. If the process was rushed, the horse would revert to its original gait. This training typically occurred when the horse was less than two years old (Choba); beyond that age, it became more challenging to train them. According to Namgyal, Meme Nawang and Tsering Dorjee, a retired soldier, were both well-known Zyon-lop trainers in Ating. Training sessions were always held during Ston (autumn) when the fields were empty, and the trainers provided their services pro bono.

Namgyal also practiced a popular tradition for horses known as Turchet. Under this practice, the owner of a pregnant horse would temporarily hand over the horse to a caretaker. The caretaker was responsible for taking care of the horse until it gave birth. Once the foal was born, the horse would be returned to its original owner, while the caretaker would keep the foal as compensation for their efforts. Namgyal regularly practiced this tradition in collaboration with the Rangdum Monastery. He would take care of the pregnant horses from the monastery, and in return, he was allowed to keep the foals as his service charge.

Besides the horses, until about twenty years ago, Zanskar was home to many donkeys, but their numbers have since diminished. Namgyal observes that, unlike horses, donkeys show little variation in performance or market value, though they can be distinguished by their color and size—large or small, black or gray. Additionally, donkeys are categorized by the appearance of their noses and snouts, with two specific types known as Kha Nakpo and Kha Karpo. The decline in donkey populations can be attributed partly to the increasing use of vehicles for transportation and labor, which have replaced the donkeys previously employed for these tasks. Additionally, there has been a significant surge in demand for donkeys over the last ten years, as many donkeys have been purchased from Zanskar by contractors in the Kargil region for government construction projects. According to Namgyal another contributing factor, though not the main reason, has been attacks by Brown bears, which pose a threat to the remaining donkey population, most of which are left unattended in the open.

Ating village is also known for producing high-quality butter. It seems that the popularity of Zanskari butter is a relatively recent phenomenon as in the past Namgyal's father like many in Zanskar used to source butter from Paddar. As mentioned, Zanskar, which was much colder in the past, had fewer grazing sites and therefore less livestock and less butter production. According to Namgyal, the best butter in Zanskar comes from Ralakung village in Stod region. Other places known for good-quality butter are Paldar Lungpa and Rangdum. Namgyal has visited these areas with an Amchi: Traditional Medicine-man, who would come to Zanskar every year to source Man-saa, the medicinal plants for his medicines. The cattle feed on these medicinal plants, which is believed to contribute to the fine quality of Zanskari butter.

Zanskar to Paddar, Salt, Horses and Butter

Sonam Phunsog

Sonam Phunsog, 68, from the Changmachan family in Akshow village, Zanskar, Ladakh, is one of the most experienced travelers in the Zanskar Valley. His father, Tundup Stanzin, mentored him in the skills of long-distance travel. In his youth, Tundup would journey to Paddar in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir, transporting Changthang salt—obtained by exchanging barley in Zanskar—to trade for rice and wheat. The people of Zanskar have long-standing ties with Paddar, and Sonam has an aunt married to a man in Losan, Paddar, where she has five daughters, all of whom are married within the region.

Wood, Shovels and Zongba from Paddar

At 14, Sonam embarked on his first journey to Paddar with his father, traversing the Hangshula pass route to reach Sumcham, the first inhabited village in Paddar. During that time, wood was scarce in Zanskar, with only a place called Yaga having some Talu (narrow wood). Sonam continued traveling to Paddar,  always travelling in groups from Akshow, sometimes comprising over 30 men. In Paddar, Sonam acquired Dungma (wood logs), Khem (wooden shovels), and Palang (cattle). Business in Paddar was difficult due to local police objections to transporting wood and other goods. According to Sonam, to overcome this, Zanskari traders enlisted the help of the Chukpo (wealthy individual) of Paddar, who managed the police on their behalf. In return, each Zanskari was expected to bring shing khuru-a large log of wood, as a gift for the Chukpo. The Chukpo often provided accommodation and food. Once the wood was delivered to the Chukpo, traders could freely conduct their business and leave Paddar without police interference. Logs were typically 4-5 feet long; older men carried four logs, while younger men carried two. Khem, or wooden shovels, were popular items, with strong individuals able to carry up to 20 Khems back to Zanskar. Each Khem cost 5 Muls or Rs 5, and a log of wood was valued at one Mul or one Rupee. At 14, Sonam carried two Khems and one Zongba, a wooden tray used for cleaning wool. Back in Akshow, while the wealthy owned their own Zongbas, the less fortunate borrowed those of the wealthy. Then there were the professional who would visit the villagers at  their home and clean the wool charging Rs 5 or two Marnaks ( bottle of cooking oil) for the service. Today, wool cleaning costs Rs 1000. 

In Zanskar, Sonam used the wood from Paddar for repairing old buildings and roofing new ones, while selling the Khems to Balti traders entering Zanskar from Pensila. Khems purchased in Paddar for Rs 5 were sold for Rs 10 to the Baltis. The Baltis, numbering around 14-15, traveled throughout Zanskar to Padum, selling horses, rice, chickens, and cattle. They also came from Damna, Kashmir, through the Chilong Valley near Panikhar, bringing cows to exchange for sheep and money. They were followed by Shamma traders from Tingmosgang, Nurla, and other places in the Sham region, who brought 30-35 donkeys loaded with kerosene in jerrycans. The Shamma traders would charge separately for the empty jerrycans.

Changpa Salt traders

During the 8th or 9th month of the Ladakhi calendar, the Changpas would visit Zanskar. Sonam vividly remembers the arrival of the Changpas. They would set up in a large field at the edge of the village and begin an age-old tradition of killing a big male sheep, Khalpa, presenting the meat to every family as a gift and announcement of their arrival. Only after this ritual would the Changpas start selling salt to the Zanskaris. The exchange rate was one Lugal (a bag used to load salt on sheep) of salt for an equal quantity of barley, whereas in central Zanskar, the rate was double—half a Lugal of salt for a full Lugal of barley.

For the Changpas entering Ladakh from the Zunglam crossing the Chacharla and from Lingti River crossing the Chumik Marpo, Akshow was the last point in Zanskar. For the Baltis entering from the west side, Padum was the last point where their goods would be sold. A popular saying in Zanskar reflects this: Akshow and Abran is the place for distress sales for the Changpas, while Padum is the place for distress sales for the Baltis.

Zanskari Horses

Sonam also notes that, until a decade ago, horses were a crucial part of Zanskari life. Every family in Akshow owned 2-3 horses, but now only his and his brother's families have horses. Zanskari and Spiti horses were highly valued, with Spiti horses being particularly prized. People from Akshow would travel with their horses to Kargil and return in 25 days with rice, salt, marnak, samar (kerosene oil), and pakpey (wheat flour). Sonam traveled on horseback to Sankoo to buy sarnak, samar, das (rice), and pakpey for the winter. Fifty years ago, a winter purchase of Mul 100 (Rs 100) was considered very good. The best Zanskari horses, known as Yorga, were prized for their smooth ride. Sonam’s brother recently sold a two-year-old Yorga for Rs 50,000 to a Kashmiri from Warwan. Yorga horses are now scarce in Zanskar, and the tradition of training horses to improve their gait has nearly vanished. According to Aba, traditionally, the best horses in Zanskar came from the Yulsum area near Karsha Gompa. Friends from Yulsum would graze their horses in the Stod region near Akshow due to its superior grazing grounds.

Zanskari Butter

The Stod region of Zanskar, is renowned for its high-quality Zanskari butter. It is believed that it owes its special taste to a variety of herbs in the region that the cattle feed on. According to Sonam, the best butter comes from dzomo (a mix of yak and domestic cattle). A dzomo yields about 1.5 to 2 liters of milk per day. Producing one liter of Zanskari butter requires about 10 liters of dzomo milk. In the past, Shamma traders visiting Zanskar to sell kerosene would exchange a jerrycan of kerosene for 3 kilos of butter. The money value of butter was Rs 33 per batti (2 kilos). Sonam’s father had a Shamma trader friend who would buy their butter for Rs 37 per batti. With the proceeds, Sonam would go to Kargil to buy food items.

Sonam's Yorga Horse

Yorga horse, Video courtesy of Stanzin Rabga, Reijing, Zanskar