Business in Kharnak.

At Dat and Lungmoche, temporary nomadic settlements in Kharnak, Changthang, Ladakh, with Ka Targe Tashi le, Ka Angchuk le, and their friends. They began their day in Dat, Kharnak (Pic 1-5) loading bales of 50 kg Boras—large sacks—to transport manure from the nearby nomad camp of Lungmoche. 

Later, when I met them again in Lungmoche (Pic 6-9) they were nearing the end of their work, filling the last Boras from heaps of manure collected from the cattle pens, locally known as Raley or Laee. While some men packed the manure, others sealed the sacks.

Ka Targe and his friends buy the manure from fellow nomads at Rs 70 per sack, with each sack measured by volume rather than weight. Typically, a 50 kg sack holds about 25-30 kg of manure. Once packed, the sacks are stacked and loaded onto trucks bound for Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. Each year, they sell around 20 truckloads of manure, with each truck carrying approximately 400 sacks. In Spiti, the manure is sold for around Rs 260 per sack. Many other Changpa nomads are also involved in this trade, making manure an essential part of their livelihood. 

 

Among the Changpa Nomads. At Spangchen, Kharnak, Ladakh

Dorjey Angchuk

The region of Kharnak, or Khar Nakpo (Black Fort), in Changthang, Ladakh, India, derives its name from an ancient fortress that remains in ruins, situated in the mountains to the north of Kharnak. While the term Kharnak is used more broadly to describe a large area to the south of Taglangla Pass and west of Tsokar Lake, the settlement of Dat serves as its de facto center. This is evident even in the road milestones, which designate Dat as Kharnak.

I met Dorjey Angchuk, while he and others from Kharnak were encamped at Spangchen/Pangchen on 23rd, August, 2024. Accordin to Dorjey following their traditional migratory plan through different grazing lands :

1. From Spangchen the group would relocate to Yagang by september 20th, where they remain for two months, from october to mid-november. 
2. After Yagang, they return to Dat to celebrate 'Losar', the Ladakhi new year, staying until the end of February before moving on to Samarche. As summer approaches, they return to Dat for a brief period of five to six days, during which they conduct the traditional 'Gyatsa' prayers. During their time in Dat, the nomads focus on prayers for favorable weather, the well-being of their livestock, and absolution for the sins (Dikpa) associated with the slaughter of animals for food. 
3. The nomads spend 45 days at Samarche before heading back to Dat, where they remain until the first week of July.
4. Before concluding their stay in Dat, the nomads descend to Yagang for two days to store essential supplies for the rest of their journey. Situated conveniently close to their subsequent campsites, Yagang serves as a key storage location, allowing the Changpa nomads to replenish their stock as they move from one camp to another. The recent installation of a Jio mobile tower in Yagang has further enhanced its significance.
5. After stocking up in Yagang, the nomads head to Zara, located at the foot of the Taglangla pass, where they stay for 20 to 45 days—until "Nyima Logshik Tshukpa," as they say. 
6. From Zara, the nomads return to Spangchen/Pangchen, repeating their annual migratory cycle. 

It is noteworthy that during this journey, not all livestock accompany the nomads. The younger animals and those providing milk remain with them, while the rest, including the valuable Changra goats (Pashmina goats), are often sent along a different route with a hired shepherd known as a Lukzee.

Over time, there have been notable changes in the relationship between the Changpa nomads and their livestock. In the 1970s, only the wealthiest nomads owned as many as 400 animals. The ratio of humans to animals was also high, as large families were common due to the practice of polyandry. In the past, sheep were preferred over goats due to the ease of processing their wool and the superior taste of their meat. However, the rise in demand for Pashmina has shifted this preference. Today, while family sizes have shrunk, the average number of livestock per household has increased to more than a thousand.

Many nomads in Kharnak now employ shepherds, known as Lukzees, primarily from among Tibetan refugees and nomads from the Korzok and Rupshu areas, who receive an average payment of ₹25,000 per month. During the winter, some nomads also hire a Yakzee, responsible for tending their yaks, for a sum of ₹30,000 per month, along with essential food supplies. This trend is not unique to Kharnak; similar practices were witnessed by the author in areas west of Lamayuru in Leh district, as well as in parts of Kargil, Dras, and Zanskar. In Kargil and Dras, Bakarwal shepherds from Kashmir are hired for about ₹18,000 per month, while in Zanskar, locals employ both Bakarwals and Nepali shepherds.

The economic shift towards Pashmina production has also led to changes in agricultural practices. In the past, barley was cultivated in Dat, one of the few areas in Kharnak suitable for agriculture. However, with the growing demand for Pashmina, nomads now find it more lucrative to invest their time and resources in the wool trade rather than farming. This transition reflects a broader trend where traditional agricultural activities are being supplanted by more profitable ventures, reshaping the livelihoods of the nomadic communities.

 Spangchen Camp

Lukzees returning with the goats and sheep in the evening

Pashmina, the gold of Ladakh.

Chospel, originally from Zangla village in Zanskar, now resides with his wives' family, who are nomads from Kharnak

The process of combing Changra goats for Pashmina wool takes place in the summer, typically around May. Male goats are called Rabo and female goats Rama, while male sheep are referred to as Khalba and female sheep as Mamo. A common term, Ra-luk, is used collectively for both goats and sheep. The young goats are called Regu and young sheep Lugu, or Sidpu and Lagbu, respectively.

A male Changra goat (Rabo), which is larger than a female (Rama), can produce up to 750 grams of wool annually, while a female produces between 250 and 500 grams. Even young goats (Sidpu) yield around 250 grams of Pashmina, with some producing as much as 500 grams in rare cases.

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Combing the goats for Pashmina is a meticulous and time-consuming task, often taking nearly a month to complete. On average, only 5 to 6 goats are combed each day, and it can take 3 to 4 sessions to fully comb one goat. If a goat is unwell, the process may take up to two months, as the wool in a sick animal tends to cling to the animal’s body. Multiple sessions ensure that the warm insulating wool is gradually removed, providing protection against unpredictable weather. If combing is delayed, the goats risk becoming infested with lice due to the warmth of the Pashmina fiber.

The nomads begin combing by examining the growth of wool near the goat’s ears and limbs, lightly plucking the wool in a method called Kokches. They ask, Kok-duga? ("Can the hair be plucked?") to assess whether the wool is ready to be removed. The full combing process, known as Shadches, follows. In cases where the wool is too long, the nomads use scissors to trim it before continuing with the combing.

For breeding, the Changpas keep two male goats (Rabo) for every 100 females (Rama). These breeding males, known as Yangra or Phara, are selected as early as three months of age and are not combed for Pashmina. Historically, non-breeding Rabos and male sheep (Khalbas) were used to carry salt from the salt lakes of Changthang and Tibet, and barley on return trips from Zanskar. However, Yangras, the female sheep (Mamos) and female goats (Ramas) stayed behind. A Yangra remains fertile for about 7 to 8 years.

As the combing of Changra goats nears completion, the process of shearing sheep wool begins. Scissors are used to shear the wool from the sheep, and within two months, a fresh layer of wool grows that is used to produce Phingpa, a type of felted fabric.

The creation of Phingpa involves a traditional felting process in which the wool is beaten, mixed with water, and mashed before being spread onto a Chaali (a carpet or mat). The wool is then rolled with a stick to form a paste, which is removed from the Chaali and further rolled to increase its strength. This process is reminiscent of recycled paper production. The resulting fabric, Phingpa, is durable and was traditionally used by the nomads to make shoes, caps, Yogor (a women’s garment), and to reinforce the edges of Lugals (woolen bags used to carry goods). These bags were made from Khulu, a fine wool taken from the neck of yaks.

During the salt trade era, Phingpa was essential for the nomads during their long-distance journeys across the rugged plateaus, narrow ridges, and treacherous mountain passes of Tibet and Zanskar. The Lugals, which carried salt and barley, often rubbed against sharp rocks, causing wear and tear that could result in the loss of their contents. To protect the goods, the nomads reinforced the edges of the Lugals with sturdy patches of Phingpa, preserving the integrity of their cargo.

In modern times, however, the production of Phingpa has declined. The process is time-consuming and labor-intensive, and the nomads' winter months are already filled with other activities. Despite the decline in Phingpa production, the Changpa nomads remain industrious throughout the year. Men typically roll wool onto sticks (Yoktod), while women create items like Pabu (traditional shoes) and weave various types of rugs and carpets, such as Tsugden, Tsugdul, and Pherri.

Inside a Rebo

One of the most significant aspects of the Changpa nomadic lifestyle is the construction of the Rebo, the traditional tent that symbolizes their identity. The Rebo is made from Sidpa, a coarse hair taken from the yak’s limbs and stomach, in contrast to the softer Khulu, which comes from the yak’s neck. Sidpa is highly valued, and nomads take great care in preserving it to weave new tents or repair old ones. The Rebo can be divided into two sections, allowing for easy mobility as the nomads move from one pasture to another.

The design of the Rebo is both practical and functional. The top has an opening that can be closed during rain or snow, but otherwise remains open to allow smoke to escape from the Gidpu, the traditional stone fireplace inside the tent. The Gidpu is constructed from local stones at each new campsite, as it is not carried during migrations. The Gidpu ( Nowadays replaced by iron stoves) serves as the central place for cooking, as well as for preparing Yos (roasted barley) and Chang (a traditional drink). Though modern synthetic custom made Rebos have started replacing the traditional woolen ones, the Changpa nomads continue to rely on this traditional shelter to survive and maintain their cultural identity in the harsh conditions of their environment.

The Salt Route : Kharnak to Zanskar, “Chu Gya na Gyat”

Phunsog Angchuk

Phunsog Angchuk, originally from Kharnak in Changthang, Ladakh, India, currently resides in a palatial house in Thiksey village, located in Leh district, where he operates a successful restaurant along the Leh to Manali highway. In his youth, he led a markedly different and adventurous life. During his early years, the major salt lakes of Mindum Tsaka and Kyelste in Tibet had become inaccessible due to border issues, while Tsokar Lake in Changthang, India, was not preferred as the main source of salt, reportedly due to its inferior quality. 

At the age of 14 or 15, Phunsog undertook his first journey to Leh with his father to collect government-distributed salt, known as Control Tsa. Due to the scarcity of Nas (barley) in Leh, they engaged in bartering on their return, exchanging Bal (sheep wool) and Yunbu (a softer wool from young sheep) from Kharnak for Toe (wheat) from villages along the Indus River.

At 17, Phunsog made his first journey to Zanskar via the route known as Junglam to purchase barley and peas in exchange for wool from Kharnak. Junglam, one of the oldest treks connecting Changthang to Zanskar, which lies to its south, and to the Markha Valley in the east, is renowned for its difficulty. This journey, taken entirely on foot, occurred just before Losar, the Ladakhi New Year. The path from his temporary nomadic home in Dat, Kharnak, to Zanskar was arduous, passing through Plingsa, Ruburang, Tilit Sumdo, Kharnak Sumdo, Wangchuk Chenmo, and numerous high-altitude pastoral areas known as Rongs.  Phunstog and the other nomads believed they had to cross “Chu Gya na Gyat,” or 108 rivers, between Dat and Zangla in Zanskar, often barefoot while enduring the harsh cold. 

It was during one of these journeys that salt was re-discovered in Tsokar Lake, prompting the nomads to carry both salt and Bal for trade. The salt was transported in twin bags, known as Lugals, carried on the backs of sheep. The journey to Zangla from Dat with salt-laden sheep took seven days. The Kharnak nomads waited until the 8th or 9th month of the year, which aligned with the harvest time in Zanskar. Trading before this time wouldn’t make sense, as the Zanskar people would not have surplus wheat to exchange. Upon arrival at Zangla, the nomads split into groups called Dang, each consisting of 5-6 members, led by experienced Tsongpa (businessmen) and a Lukzee (shepherd). Each group managed approximately 300 sheep. While some groups stayed in Zangla, others continued to places like Tsatar, Shillinghit, and Tongde.

The Kharnak nomads had built strong trade relationships in Zanskar, particularly in villages around a place called Kumik Marthang, which they referred to as Chuta. There, they camped and visited nearby villages to trade wool and Pheri (used carpets) from Kharnak for barley and peas. According to Phunsog, as supplies of barley in the Chuta/Marthang region were insufficient to fill all the Lugals, the nomads crossed the Lungnak River (also known as the Tsarap) to access larger supplies in areas like Pipiting and Padum. Since the sheep could not cross the rivers, they transferred the Lugals onto horses. The nomads would then cross the Stod River to trade in Karsha. While the horses returned to Marthang the same day, the nomads often slept in the open, enduring the snowfall.

The Zanskari people, who lacked wood for fuel, frequently crossed the Lungnak River to collect Rilmang-goat dung from the nomads for heating purposes. The Zanskaris had small temporary houses in Marthang. In the evenings, they would emerge from their homes to socialize and celebrate with the nomads, creating a vibrant atmosphere. Phunsog Angchuk also participated in the butter trade, a highly valuable commodity at the time. He bartered butter in equal quantities with salt. One of the most profitable trades involved selling the skins of Tseru Nakpo (black calves). The skin was especially prized by Zanskari women for crafting Nilen, a headpiece worn with the traditional Perak.

While the Zunglam was a popular trek for the Changpa traders from Kharnak, according to Angchuk, the nomads from the Rupsho region, located southeast of Dat in Kharnak, often took the path through the Lingti River-Chumik Marpo, further south near Serchu in Himachal Pradesh. Some nomads also traveled via the Marang La Pass. These routes were typically chosen based on existing trading partnerships. While the nomads from Kharnak had closer relationships with the people of central Zanskar, those from Rupsho maintained strong ties with the communities of eastern Zanskar. Both groups selected their routes according to their established associations, making it easier for the Changpas from the Rupsho area to enter Zanskar from the eastern side rather than using the Zunglam trek. Typically, the nomads stayed in Zanskar for about 10 days, depending on how long it took to fill their Lugals with barley or peas. Once all the Lugals were filled the Changpa nomads would begin their return journey to Kharnak to arrive in time for Losar.

 

It has been over 35 years since Phunsog Angchuk made his last traditional foot journey for trade. The last such journey occurred more than three decades ago, when Phunsog, along with fellow traders Meme Tsering Tundup, Gyatso, and Tsering Tashi, took eight horses to Zanskar to purchase butter. They returned with 20 battis (1 batti =2 kgs), which they later sold for twice the price in Leh. This marked the beginning of the end of an era in the traditional trade routes between Kharnak and Zanskar.

Dorjey Angchuk

 

According to Dorjey Angchuk  when salt was first discovered in Tsokar lake to the east of Kharnak region in the last quarter of the 20th century, there was significant tension over its distribution between the Kharnak nomads and those living  in villages around Tsokar. The Kharnak nomads, unable to access the salt directly, initially had to resort to Skuches-stealing it. This led to conflicts until both sides came to a Nangdik or a mutual agreement. Under the terms of the Nangdik, the Kharnak people were granted certain rights. They were allowed to bring their sheep to graze in the Tsokar area, although they could not set up permanent camps. More importantly, they were entitled to a share of the salt which the Tsokar villagers would deliver loaded onto their sheep, in the 5th month of the Ladakhi calendar. The Kharnak nomads would measure this salt in tiffins, a local unit of measurement equal to one batti or approximately 2 kilograms. The Kharnak nomads would keep a portion of the salt for their own use and then trade the rest in Zanskar. The visit to Zanskar would be around the 8th or the 9th month so as to match with the harvest season in Zanskar when the natives would have surplus barley to trade for the salt.

 

Dorjey Angchuk, also recalls that Zanskar had an abundance of butter, primarily because the Zanskaris grazed their livestock, particularly their zhos (a type of yak-cattle hybrid), in the Rangdum region, which was rich in grass. As per tradition, the Khanrnak nomads used a special scale called Nyaga, but the Zanskaris, not fully trusting this method, used their own tin-can-like device called a Pari to calibrate the measurement. One Pari was equal to 2 pao, and 4 Paris made one batti.

 

Beyond trading salt for wheat and butter, the Kharnak nomads also sold livestock to Muslim traders from Leh, whom Dorjey still remembers fondly. These traders, such as Kadir, Dula, Rasheed, and Baba Siddique, were frequent buyers of livestock from the Changthang region.