Ladakh-Yarkand trade route: Three Gentlemen

Stanzin Tsewang

Stanzin Tsewang, now 96-year-old, from Kyagar village in Nubra, Ladakh, is widely respected as an authority on the routes and geography of Nubra. Drawing from the Ladags Gyalrabs, Stanzin traces the history of Ladakh’s connections with the Hors—people of Turkic origin from north of the Karakoram mountains—stretching back a thousand years. According to this account, around the 10th century AD, a chieftain named Gyapa Cho in upper Indus faced repeated raids by the Hors, who crossed the Karakoram Pass to plunder the region. Hearing of Skyid lde nyi ma mgon the founder of the Ngari Khorsum Empire, Gyapa Cho invited him to counter these incursions, offering land in Shey as a reward. 

It is also mentioned in the Ladags Gyalrabs that in the 16th century, King Tsewang Namgyal of Ladakh considered launching a counter-invasion into the Hors’ territory across the Karakoram, but the people of Nubra, reliant on trade with the Hors, persuaded him to abandon the plan to safeguard their economic interests.

Stanzin recalls that during his youth, the Hors arrived in Nubra each summer, traveling in camel caravans over the Saser La Pass and descending through Tulum Putit La into the Nubra Valley at Sasoma. In Panamik, they would camp at Bhap Kothi, a storage area used by the Dogra government to collect taxes from villagers from Panamik and nearby settlements. This site served as a vital camping point for the Hors before they continued on to Leh. Stanzin also mentions an old practice called Nangskor, where the Hors camped on lands owned by specific Nubra families, using the grass for animal feed. Typically, a Hor trader traveled with about 10 servants, known as Chakars, who cared for the animals and goods, set up tents, and prepared food. According to Stanzin, the trader, the leader of the group was addressed as Bhai. The Hors brought items such as Kaleen (carpets), silk, and Baang and Charas (forms of cannabis); the scent of charas was strong, easily noticed as their camel caravans, loaded with goods, passed through Nubra. The Hors traded for cash, grazing rights, and collected medicinal plants: Mandok from Ladakh.

The Hor caravans typically consisted of two groups: traders, who moved on to Leh, and pilgrims (Hajis) who journeyed through Zojila to Kashmir and continued to Mecca, possibly by sea. They traveled through Nubra Valley, stopping at Panamik, Terisha, Kyagar, Terit, and other villages before crossing Khardung La to reach Leh. In winter, they took the Chang La Pass. Conscious of the harsh winter, the Hors aimed to return in Ston (autumn) before the passes closed. Stanzin recalls that some traders from Hoshiarpur in Leh often joined the Hors caravans to Yarkand in autumn to trade and returned the following summer. Many Hajis, however, did not return to Ladakh, possibly taking alternate routes after completing their pilgrimage.

Travelers from both Ladakh and Yarkand made the journey, returning once the passes reopened, but some chose to settle in new lands. Stanzin remembers a man named Gulam from the Lakjungpa family who moved to Yarkand with his family. Similarly, some Hors decided to settle in Ladakh, like Ahsan Bhai from Hargam village, a descendant of Yarkandi parents who established himself permanently in Nubra.

According to Stanzin, in the first half of the 20th century when the Leh-Yarkand trade was on, the Hors were so integrated into Nubra’s life that, Ladakhis along the Panamik route would use Hor words into their daily language. Common terms included “Su” for water, “keling  keling” for “come,” “At” for horse,  and “Ishak” for donkey.

Stanzin lists out examples to cite the legacy of the now abadoned Leh-Yarkand trade preserved in Turkic-origin place names along the route. For example, Daulet Beg Oldie, meaning “place where the rich man died,” in Turki language, refers to Said Khan of Yarkand, who perished there in the 14th century. His nephew, Mirza Haider, who invaded Ladakh with him, records his conquests—including the massacre of Nubra residents who resisted him—in the Tariq-e-Rashidi. Another location, Sultan Chusku, according to Stanzin is named after a wealthy Hor trader named Sultan, who frequently used it as a resting and grazing ground. Other place names, such as Chong Kumdan (large dam), Kichik Kumdan (small dam), Chongthar (“big boulder”), and Ak Tash (“white stone”) near Saser Brangsa, retain the influence of the Hor language and mark their historical presence in Nubra.

According to Stanzin these exchanges and interactions continued until the early 1950s, when political tensions and border issues at the Karakoram Pass ended the Hors’ visits. By 1955, with closed borders and shifting geopolitics, the Hors’ travels to Ladakh came to a permanent end.

Wangdus Nurbu Kalon

Wangdus Nurbu Kalon, now 83, from Tegar village in Nubra, Ladakh, was born into the prominent Srah-ngara family of Leh. This distinguished family played a significant role in the famous Lopchak trade missions from Ladakh to Tibet, an integral part of Ladakh’s historic trade network. His great grandfather, Dawa Shah, and uncle, Tonyot Shah, who frequently led these missions, were important central figures in the 20th-century trade history of Ladakh. Although Wangdus moved to Nubra in 1962, his early years in Leh gave him rare firsthand experience of the Hors’ visits to Leh—an experience few Ladakhis share today.

The Hors journeyed to Leh by crossing Saser La, Tulum putit La to Sasoma then crossing the Nubra valley finally descending down the Khardungla to enter Leh. Wangdus recalls the annual arrival of the Hors, each summer. The men traders were referred to as Khwaja, and the women as Khanum. His ancestral land in Leh was a favored stop for the Hors, along with other traditional resting places like the current police station Leh and the Sarai at Zangsti now a parking lot and public restroom. At Zangsti, a two-story building offered the Hors accommodations on the upper level, while their camels, horses, and notably large donkeys were kept below.

The Hors brought with them long-grain basmati rice, raisins, and sheep with large, fatty tails—a delicacy shared with locals who bought meat at the traders’ camps. Wangdus remembers them brewing Kawa chai, known as Singyaa, in a Samawar, a Central Asian kettle. After trading in Leh, the Hors would often continue to Kashmir, leaving their camels behind, and return months later carrying spices.

Wangdus recalls a phrase from the Hors, “Yaxshi ba, qaytsi bama, qandaq ka le ma.” a loose translation would mean something close to - "good, are you going back" ? They also used the term “Obdang” frequently as a word of praise. The Hors brought valuable items like kaleen (carpets) and other Yarkandi goods, and Wangdus’ family, one of the wealthier families in Nubra, still has a collection of Yarkandi items, including carpets and utensils.

One particular memory stands out: A Deputy Commissioner of Ladakh, a frequent visitor to Nubra, and a friend of the Kalon family, enjoyed a song celebrating the memory of visiting Hors, sung by one Tsewang from Terisha. Though the Hors no longer visit Ladakh, the song endures, and Wangdus remembers the Deputy Commissioner's delight as Tsewang performed, balancing on one leg, jumping and singing, “Achir Khan lo, Wachir Khan lo, wai wai jaan, Yarkand Khwaja Obdan, wai wai bhai jaan,” as the Deputy Commissioner  laughed and clapped along. This song, rich with memories of the Hors, remains a treasured piece of Nubra’s history.

Phunstog Stobdan Vir Chakra

Havaldar Punchok Stobdan, Vir Chakra, now 86 and from the Khampa Gongma family in Panamik village, Nubra, is a distinguished veteran of two wars. He was awarded, The Chief of Army Staff Commendation Card, in 1962 and later received the Vir Chakra for his bravery in the 1971 war with Pakistan.

In his youth, Stobdan recalls the annual arrival of the Hors—Yarkandi traders—each summer, typically in the 4th or 5th month when the Saser La pass reopened. Traveling in small groups of 5-6, the traders would suddenly descend into Nubra with over a hundred camels, a breathtaking sight in the valley. According to Stobdan, traders on the Leh-Yarkand route meticulously planned their loads, balancing up to 50 kg in sturdy Pyingpa bags on each horse and adjusting the width to fit the Leh-Yarkand trade route’s narrowest sections, only 6.5 feet across.

In Panamik, a government-run Godown served as a tax collection center, where villagers contributed a portion of their harvest. Upon arrival, the Hors would first visit the Kutidar, the official in charge of the Godown, presenting certificates from Yarkandi authorities that entitled them to a free barley supply as part of an agreement established under British jurisdiction over the Leh-Yarkand trade route. Some Hors cleaned the barley to take to Leh, while others used it as animal feed, and some took it to local grinders to make Phey (flour).

The Hors typically camped for 3-4 days near the Kutti Godown in Panamik and on private lands owned by various families, including Stobdan’s ancestral home. This arrangement, known as Nangskor, allowed the Hors to stay with specific families in Nubra each year and use their Olthang (grass fields) as fodder for their animals in exchange of gifts from Yarkand.

Stobdan’s grandfather, Sonam Tsepal, was highly respected among the Hors and frequently traveled to Yarkand. Known for his exceptional horses, Sonam often rented them to the Hors to transport goods back to Yarkand, often accompanying them himself. According to Stobdan, the Hors’ servants, known as Chakars, set up tents across Panamik. They would cook fragrant basmati rice from Yarkand, its aroma spreading through the valley and making it a beloved delicacy among the people of Nubra. The traders also brought sheep with distinctive round, fatty tails, which they prepared and cooked at their campsites.

The Hors traded items such as carpets, Namda, and Pyingpa of different types - Kha Marpo—some adorned with mentok (floral) designs and others left plain. They also brought silk and precious metals like gold and silver, locally known as Gyastat. Charas was another popular item, and Stobdan recalls a Charas Munshi, an official at Panamik who oversaw the entry of Charas from Central Asia into Ladakh. The people of Nubra frequently bought animals from the Hors, with horses priced at Rs. 1 and donkeys at 8 annas. A person named Labor Rigzin was known for owning a camel, while the Kalon family owned the largest collection of animals in the area. The Hors often stored goods with locals in Nubra, and collecting them  the following year.

Like Wangdus Nurbu and Stanzin Tsewang, Stobdan remembers phrases in the Hor language, such as "Bugun Tureyan Bar miz" loosely  meaning “Would you stay back?” 

 *The author extends sincere gratitude to the Honorable Councillor of Panamik, Tsering Sangdup le, for his invaluable support in facilitating this visit.

Note: The author has used phonetic Hor/Uyghur words in this article and may have occasionally erred in transcribing the exact words due to note-taking inaccuracies. Any misinterpretations are due to the author’s limited understanding and will be clarified through follow-up interviews during the next visit to Nubra. The article will be edited and revised accordingly.

Nurla village: The Radio and the Mail Runners of Ladakh

Nawang Tundup

Nawang Tundup, 90 years old, of Serchongpa family in village Nurla, in Leh, Ladakh, India, measures his land by sunsets. It takes him three sunsets to finish working on his vast fields. When he was young, prices were significantly different: Chuli was Rs 1 per Pao (250 grams), and Phating was Rs 3 per Pao. In his youth, Nawang Tundup would visit Sakti with his donkeys, staying there for 2-3 days until the Changpas (nomadic herders) arrived. He bartered Nas (barley) for salt, then returned to Nurla before heading to Kargil, where he would again trade his surplus salt for Nas, earning a profit. Once back in Nurla, he would grind the barley into Phey (a type of flour), which he then sold again for a profit. 

At the age of 25, Nawang Tundup made a trip to Kashmir, taking Rs 200 with him to buy rice. His companions on the journey were a member of the Tongspon family, Tashi from the Kyatpa family, and Skarma from the Gongmey family. He returned with Rs 100 still unspent—a significant amount in those days, when Rs 100 could meet most of one’s needs. “One hundred rupees back then was worth more than a thousand now,” he remarked. He traveled with one horse and five donkeys (Horbung), which he had purchased from the Hors. From Kashmir, the horse carried 50 Battis (1 Batti equals about 2 kg) of rice, while the stronger donkeys carried 30 Battis, and the weaker ones carried 25 Battis each. The journey to Kashmir took 15 days each way, and they stayed in Kashmir for several days. During this trip, Nawang Tundup and his team met the famous Ladakhi engineer Shri Sonam Nurbo, who was taking measurements for the new road from Srinagar to Leh. He later met him once again when he was inspecting the road from Wanla to Hanupatta.

Master Sonam Dorjey

Master Sonam Dorjey, 98 yrs, is a retired headmaster and respected scholar of mid-20th century Ladakh. Over his career, he taught in remote areas across Ladakh, including Nubra and Changthang. His most memorable experience was in 1954 when he traveled to Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar with the 19th Venerable Bakula Rinpoche. The pilgrimage team consisted of four lamas, the Goba from Spituk village, Nyemo Acho Phunsok, Tsetan Tundup from Gongbey Tongspon, Leh, Khambey Ajang Tsering Sonam, and 10-11 other attendees. Master Dorjey recalls an incident during this pilgrimage where the person in charge of planning the route made a mistake, leading the group from Demchok, Tashigang to Rudok and then to Manasarovar, and back through Changla. According to Master Dorjey, the journey should have followed the Buddhist practice of Skora (circumambulation), taking them from Changla, Tangtse, Chushul, and Rudok, with the return via Tashigang and Demchok.

After leaving Tashigang, the next major stop was at Minsar, which is Indian territory ( for more on Minsar, pl refer to the terms of the Treaty of Timosgang, of 1684), and the residents there paid revenue taxes to the Indian government. By this time, the people of Minsar were aware of the looming Chinese threat and shared their concerns with the group. The team stayed in Minsar for a night. The next stop was at Tetapuri Gompa, where the Komyer (incharge Lama) hailed from Hemis Monastery in Ladakh. They then moved on to Tokponoo and Chosku Gompa, where they stayed for two days, followed by a two-day stop at Deraphuk Gompa. After crossing the Dolma La Pass, they reached a place called Zumthulphuk.

Four days later, they arrived at a village called Tarchen, at the base of Kang Rinpoche (Mount Kailash), where many families lived in Rebos (tent-like structures) and small flat-roofed houses. The team stayed in Tarchen for 2-3 days before climbing to Diyung Gompa, a small, pristine monastery with only four lamas. After this, they reached a place called Gyantak and ventured no further. Master Dorjey fondly remembers seeing many Chortens (Buddhist stupas) at the base of Kang Rinpoche. The entire journey took about three and a half months before they returned to Leh.

In the past, Sham was known for its resilient traders who ventured to distant places in Tibet. Many from Sham would even participate in the famed Lopchak Trade Mission to Lhasa, Tibet ( for more on Lopchak,  pl refer to the Treaty of Timosgang,1684). Master Dorjey never witnessed the Lopchak Mission firsthand, but he frequently heard about the departure of the mission through Phunsog Namgyal of the Thangpa family from Nurla, who would accompany the Leh Kalon on the Lopchak every three years. The villagers of Nurla would hold a send-off ceremony, Kalchor, for Phunsog Namgyal before his departure. Other than Lopchak, the Shamma traders would go all across the Indus Valley, Nubra, Changthang, and Tibet. The furthest the Ladakhi traders traveled was to Gerste, where they encountered a Gerste Spon, who was in charge of all affairs in the area. Shamma traders from Ladakh carried goods such as Phey, Skampey, Phating, Stho Phating, and Nas. In return, they brought back Tsoskhul, Lena, Bal, Legu, Khulu, Sukdan, Sukthul, Mar, and Luk from Tibet.

According to Master Sonam Dorjey, during his youth, Meme Sonam Tundup of the Tsaskan family in Nurla was the leading trader not only in Nurla but perhaps in the whole of Sham. Master Dorjey also noted that Aba Phunsog had traveled as far as Lahore for business. He described Tundup as a generous and semba lakmo (clean-hearted) individual who frequently helped others in need. Tundup often advised people not to take large loans from him, although he always provided whatever they asked for. He sent his three sons to different regions of Changthang to trade and helped many families in and around Nurla become wealthy.

Besides the annual visits to the remote regions of Ladakh and Tibet, the Sham people also traded with outsiders passing through Sham. Sonam Dorjey recalled the Hor traders, who passed through Sham on their transit to Haj. These visits created business opportunities, particularly for those living along the highway (Paldapa), compared to those who lived nearer the mountains (Lungbatpa). In fact, many people residing along the roadside in Nurla and Sham learned some of the Hor language, which helped them trade with the Hors. One Abhi from the Staskan family was particularly known for her fluency in the language. Other traders passing by Nurla included Kashmiris and Baltis, though the Karjapas, who traveled to Leh from the southeastern roads, did not reach Sham.

Master Sonam recalls a unique mail-runner system that was in popular practice during the first half of the 20th century in Ladakh. It was through his uncle, Tsering Chhospel from Pharketang, who was a well-known mail runner, that Sonam learned the details of this unique system. Introduced by the Dogra officials to ensure mail reached its destination promptly, the system involved a series of runners covering the entire route from Leh to Srinagar and Skardu. The chain continued day and night, ensuring that a letter or parcel reached its destination without delay. Two mail runners covered each four-mile segment, passing the mail like a relay. Letters from Leh could reach Nurla the same day. Heavy parcels were kept separate and delivered later. In May 2024, Angchuk Fargo, the nephew of Master Sonam Dawa and the grandson of Tsering Chhospel, showed me the remains of two remote sites that were the remnants of old Dak Ghars used for storing Dak (mail)) during the days of the mail-runners.

 Ka Angchuk Fargo 

It was his mail-runner uncle who first told Master Sonam about a new technology called the radio. According to Master Sonam, a Christian Padri (priest) who came to live in Khalatse had brought the first radio to the region. His mail-runner uncle, Tsering Chhospel, would stop in Khalatse every Saturday after handing over his mail load to the next runner. The uncle, fascinated by the Padri’s English, began learning the language from him. It was during this time that his uncle saw the radio for the first time and returned to the village to tell people about the Padri's "talking box" with wires. He also recounted seeing the Padri cry while listening to the strange device. Much later, Master Sonam learned that the Padri had been receiving news about World War II on his radio and was saddened by the Allies’ defeats at the hands of Japanese soldiers. For a long time, no one in the village believed his uncle’s description of the “talking box.” Master Sonam also witnessed a gramophone for the first time when the Gyalpo Sonam Tundup Namgyal of Zangla in Zanskar visited Nurla on his way to Leh. Villagers gathered under a walnut tree to listen to the Gyalpo play music on the gramophone. Master Sonam also recalled how, during this period, when Europeans visited Ladakh, his mail-runner uncle, a keen learner of English, would quiz Master Sonam on the origins of these visitors, distinguishing the British (the "real Angrezpa"), Spainpa, Germanpa, and Italipa. 

Master Sonam remembered the  dreaded tradition of Res (forced labor), which required villagers along the road to transport goods for officials traveling to and from Leh for free on their  back. Foreigners, especially under orders from the British Joint Commissioner, would pay for the labor, but local Ladakhi officials, including Chaprasis, and Kashmiri officials, such as the Wazir, never paid for the labor. Many villagers purchased horses to avoid being forced to carry loads on their backs. Some even took loans to buy horses, hoping to escape the grueling Res labor. The Wazir’s wife and dog would often be transported in a Palki (palanquin), carried by a team of 15-16 people who took turns after short distances.

Master Sonam recalls a story as told to him by his grandfather, once a group of foreigners pitched three tents on Master Sonam’s land.  There was a dispute about the final payment to be made. One day, the British commissioner happened to be passing by Nurla. Master Sonam's grandfather seized the opportunity to visit the commissioner at the bungalow and complained to the British Joint Commissioner. The official listened patiently and ordered that the remaining money be paid. The order was typed using a small box, which villagers later learned was called a typewriter.

During a certain year, news spread of the impending bursting of a lake in Depsang, Nubra, leading to an influx of foreigners to the region who were part of the team assigned to solve the issue. The English recruited strong men from Nurla and nearby villages like Timosgang, including Tsaskan Meme Tundup's younger brother and Master Sonam’s mail-runner uncle, who was selected because he understood English. In Nurla, the Kutti (a small house) and a bungalow, once used for officials, have since been converted into a hospital and a school. According to Master Sonam, although times have changed, nothing has gone to waste. 

The above interviews were conducted in 2021.