At Spituk with Aba Jamspal Dorjey le of Nerchung Khangu.

At 89, Aba Jamspal still works daily in the family fields. He attributes his vitality to a youth filled with travel and adventure. His first encounter with the salt trade came when he was about fifteen, during a journey to the bustling markets of Sakti and Chemrey. He vividly recalls the scale of those markets, where hundreds of traders from across Ladakh and Baltistan gathered to barter. The Changpa herders arrived with sheep carrying lugals of salt, which were stacked into striking pyramid-shaped piles. At Sakti, Jamspal could trade his barley for salt, often three times the quantity.

The Shamma and Balti traders who came to Sakti passed through his village of Spituk. The Shamma travelled with donkeys, while the Baltis, relying on dzhos, would rest overnight in the village. Their arrivals turned Spituk festive, for the Baltis in particular would spend their evenings with song and dance that lasted until dawn.

The Baltis carried phatings and doltoks. The smaller doltoks were packed in hay-filled bags, while the larger ones were carried in stacked loads. Equally prized were the apricot kernels they transported. Each dzho bore at least one khal, about fifty kilograms, of kernels. In Ladakh’s village, as in the monasteries, apricot oil was indispensable, valued especially for lighting prayer lamps. The kernels were traded for barley in Spituk, and that barley was then exchanged for salt with the Changpas at Sakti. In a land where everything was scarce, nothing went to waste: villagers crushed the residue of the kernels, known as patsaa, boiled it for hours to reduce its sourness, and mixed it with toe to prepare a dish called tsanthuk. Such foods were vital to Ladakh’s subsistence economy.

Jamspal holds the Shamma traders in particular esteem, remembering them as among the most hardworking people he had ever known. After returning from Sakti with salt, many would forgo Losar celebrations and head straight to Kargil. There, some exchanged salt for rice brought by Balti traders, at the favourable rate of one measure of salt for one of rice, an even exchange compared to the three-for-one rate of salt for barley at Sakti. Others sold their salt in Kargil and pressed westward, crossing Zojila into Kashmir to purchase rice, which at the time cost one rupee for two kilograms.

Jamspal personally witnessed these trades in Kargil and Sonamarg. He was almost twenty when he travelled to Kargil to transport wool for “The Syndicate,” one of Ladakh’s cooperative organisations. Later, he joined fellow traders from the Tsokrun, Mogol, Rongo, and Chupsa families on journeys to Sonamarg to buy rice. These expeditions, he remembers, were as much about endurance and survival as they were about commerce.

One of the most vivid memories of his youth was tax collection. Villagers were required to clean their grain before delivering it to the government store in Leh. Yet, no matter how carefully they worked, some officials, Ladakhis themselves, would find fault. A chaprasi named Stanzin Dawa (name changed) became notorious for his cruelty. He would smear his palm with butter, dip it into the grain, and if even a speck of dust clung to his hand, he would reject the consignment. The villagers had no choice but to return home and clean the grain all over again.

The other memories, were of, wool being so scarce, that a team from Spituk monastery, monks and laypersons alike, travelled as far as Gertse in Tibet to procure it for weaving robes. As a child, Jamspal also saw groups of very well dressed, forty or fifty Dogra soldiers passing through Spituk to relieve counterparts at Leh’s Qila, part of the annual transfer of forces. He remembers, too, the Tungan and Kazakh refugees who fled Central Asia in the mid-1940s. They bartered a single roti for a sheep. Some wore hats resembling those of high lamas, and rumours spread that they had looted monasteries and nomadic settlements in Tibet, bringing with them both sheep and ceremonial hats.

Independence brought good news for Ladakhis. Salt and other essentials began to be distributed through the local ration shop. Families continued to save rice for Losar or to serve relatives during times of celebration and priods of mourning. Jamspal also expresses gratitude to the Indian Army, which in the 1940s and 1950s created large scale  livelihoods for many Ladakhis,whether through enlistment or the spin-off trades its presence generated. A single trip from Spituk to Chorbat La with Army loads on horses could earn as much as thirty-six rupees. He also witnessed the first landing of Dakota aeroplanes in Spituk, an event that transformed the local economy. Each Dakota carried either twenty-four bags of flour or twenty-five cans of kerosene. A load transported from the airport to the Qila in Leh earned one rupee, while unloading at the airstrip paid two rupees per day. These opportunities encouraged villagers to acquire horses, which were soon employed almost exclusively for Army transport.

Brokpa traders: Sakti-Chemrey to Baltistan

Nawang Stanzin

Nawang Stanzin, 96, from the Pichipa family, is one of the oldest residents of Garkon village in the Kargil district of Ladakh, India. He belongs to the Brokpa community, regarded as one of the earliest settlers of Ladakh. When he was young, it was a common practice for the Brokpa people from Dah, Hanu, Garkhon, and Batalik villages to travel to the famous salt markets of Sakti and Chemrey villages exchanging local barley for salt from Tibet. The salt was then transported to faraway places like Skardo and Shigar in Baltistan, where it was traded for apricots and cash. The money earned from selling salt in Baltistan was mainly used to pay the government tax in Ladakh, known as Bhaps, which was levied twice a year. The tax, amounting to 1 to 2 annas, had to be paid in Mulbek. Apart from Bhaps, villagers also endured the burden of Jins and the oppressive practice of Res/Begar, where they were forced to transport loads from Mulbek to Bod Kharbu. Nawang participated in Res, where he carried official loads of Dak and Bistara.

According to Nawang Stanzin who was a regular visitor to the Sakti-Chemrey salt market, the main salt market took place on the fields belonging to the Chemrey Monastery, where traders from all over Ladakh gathered to buy salt, wool, and sheep in exchange of barley. Nawang vividly remembers seeing over 1,000 sheep at this lively marketplace, their backs laden with Lugals (saddle bags). The trading terms were straightforward—equal amounts of barley were exchanged for equal amounts of salt. The Changpa traders also dealt in wool, offering ready-made bales of wool called 'Stakhur,' which were easily carried by horses or donkeys. From Garkhon, it took eight days to reach Ladakh, and the same amount of time was needed to reach Skardo.

Abiding by the old tradition of seeing off family and friends embarking on trade journeys to Baltistan, the farthest Nawang ever traveled was to Morol and Olding, now part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). These locations served as the farewell points, where they would watch the elders cross rivers to reach Skardu and Shigar. The rivers were crossed using flat wooden platforms called Bhips, which were sturdy enough to carry both people and animals. A Balti rower, using a long stick, would guide the Bhips across the river, ensuring a safe passage. Besides the Bhips, the Baltis used an ingenious method called Balang Pakspa to cross rivers. They would sew and inflate buffalo skins, allowing a person to lie on the inflated skin and paddle across. A third method combined both approaches—a Bhips built on top of inflated buffalo skins.

The journey to and back from Baltistan took about a month. From the long journey of Baltistan, the traders brought back Phating (apricots) and Zhupu (young dzho, a yak-cattle hybrid). Nawang also recalls a time when some villagers brought back stongyur chaa, a variety of grain from Skardo, so fertile that one seed could produce up to 1,000 grains.

In addition to his trading activities, Nawang Stanzin has occasionally taken on the role of a Mon, a traditional musician who performed for his community during special occasions. This responsibility circulates from person to person within the community, ensuring that the tradition is passed on and maintained across generations.

Salt, Rolex, Ladakh to Calcutta.

Rigzin Namgyal and Tashi Namgyal

Rigzin Namgyal, 89 as of 2021 from Sakti village in Ladakh, India, spent his early youth as a successful trader, undertaking biannual journeys, Yar-Gun—summer and winter trips—to Changthang and Tibet. Much of this time was dedicated to trading in western Tibet until the Chinese occupation disrupted traditional trade routes.

In summer, Rigzin Namgyal engaged in Yar-tsong or summer trade, traveling to distant regions including Rudok, Rawang, Thok, and Hundur. Rudok, a picturesque town with a monastery and a fort, was home to about 60 to 70 families. He and his companions carried goods like Phating, Chuli, Phey, rice, and eggs. To protect the eggs from breaking, the Ladakhi traders employed an innovative technique, carefully packing them in Pakphey (wheat flour). These items were exchanged for the prized Bal and Lena in Tibet. In winter, he frequently visited Maga, a vast grazing land near Rudok that provided pasture for horses from Sakti and Chemrey. Maga was expansive enough to support thousands of horses, yaks, and other livestock, and he fondly recalled seeing around a thousand Kyangs, along with yaks and Raluks, in that area.

During his journeys, Rigzin discovered several salt sources, particularly at Rajok Tso, where salt was harvested and dried in the sun. His travels in Tibet also took him to gold mines like Munak Thok, Rathok Thok, and Myanmo Thok, located about ten days east of Rudok. Although gold panning, as was common throughout the Himalayas, was not particularly lucrative, it provided a livelihood for many impoverished miners, who paid a tax known as ser-go-thal, amounting to 10 annas (with 16 annas equating to one rupee). Aba Rigzin continued his trading trips to Rudok until 1962, when the Chinese invasion disrupted the region.

In Ladakh, salt markets in Chemrey and Sakti were held twice a year, during the summer and autumn months. Buyers traveled from distant places like Shigar and Skardu in Baltistan. Rigzin Namgyal could easily distinguish Shigar Baltis from Skardu Baltis by their complexions, noting that Skardu Baltis generally had fairer skin. The Baltis traded items such as Phating and mulberries. The summer market was hosted in Dabung in Sakti village, where a Beakon office now stands, while the autumn market took place near Chemrey Monastery in fields known as Thaka Zukhan. The exchange rate for salt and barley fluctuated; standard quality salt was typically equivalent in quantity to barley, though poor-quality salt could require three battis (approximately 6 kg) for one batti of barley.

During this period, Hor traders entered Ladakh through the Changla Pass. Many Ladakhis in Sakti and Chemrey spoke the Hor language, enabling residents like Ajang Tsewang and Tokpo Skalzang to communicate with them. The Hor traders brought Phingpa, Kaleen, tea, and Chakman. They traveled with horses, camels, and donkeys, always on the lookout for grazing grounds for their animals. People in Sakti and Chemrey would trade local grass for the prized Central Asian items brought by the Hor traders, creating a vibrant trading opportunity for all. 

Rigzin’s friend, Tashi Namgyal, 84, as of 2021, reminisced about European explorers arriving in the Rong area with advanced equipment, drilling into rocks and building chain bridges across the Indus River, while locals carried their belongings in palkis.

In those days, government teaching positions were plentiful due to a shortage of educated Ladakhis. Rigzin Namgyal secured a role in the education department, teaching in various locations in Changthang, including Kyungyam, Hemya, and Shara. Between the late 1950s and early 1960s, while stationed as a government school teacher in Chushul, he witnessed significant events in Indian military history, including the return of Deputy Superintendent Karam Singh after the Hot Springs incident. Following the 1962 war with China, Aba Rigzin  travelled with the team tasked in a mission to retrieve the remains of the legendary Major Shaitan Singh and his men from Rezang La, becoming one of the first to reach the site of Major Shaitan Singh's martyrdom.

A notable episode in Rigzin's trading career involved a cheque for 6,000 tibetan currency from a business partner in Tibet. Unable to cash it in Leh due to foreign currency issues, he traveled all the way to Calcutta, where the only bank that could handle the transaction was located. After struggling to find a guarantor, a Nepali trader at the Mahabodhi Society where Aba Rigzin was staying offered assistance. While in Calcutta, Rigzin seized the opportunity to purchase expensive Rolex and Omega watches, along with Sheaffer and Parker pens, which were highly valued among the rich in Tibet. He also made trips to Amritsar and then to Kashmir to buy rice, which he transported for trade in Changthang.

The above interview was conducted in 2021.

Tashi Rigzin, Photoksar, Sengge Lalok, Ladakh

Tashi Rigzin

Tashi Rigzin, 62, originally from Photoksar village, and now residing in Chushot, Leh, reflects on the past when Photoksar, with its fertile grazing lands, was home to large herds of yak and demo. The locals produced surplus butter and churpi, which they traded in nearby regions. Tashi fondly recalls his childhood, especially the time after the annual barley harvest during the ston season (autumn), when his grandfather would journey to Spang Chenmo in Sakti village to secure the family’s yearly supply of salt. To purchase the salt, his grandfather would either take money or Chuli-Phaating (dried apricots), which he had bartered on the way, in the area around Khalsi village for homemade butter or churpi. In Sakti, his grandfather exclusively traded with trusted Changpa traders, who he called  Dzagos ( friends). 

In those days, the Sengge-la pass, connecting Photoksar and Zanskar to the Sham area was only open for a few months in summer. Due to the scarcity of grazing land in Yurchung and Nyerak, villagers from those areas would bring their livestock near to Photoksar for grazing in the 4th month of the Ladakhi calendar and return before Ston just before the harvest. There was a longstanding agreement that their animals would not cross beyond Maneychan Tokpo (a stream), a rule enforced by the Goba members  (village leaders). The people of Photoksar frequently sold butter in Leh, and they occasionally sold yak and demo to visitors from Tia and Timosgang villages. 

Before the construction of the new motorable road to Zanskar, two main routes connected Photoksar to the Indus Valley. In summer, traveling from Hanupatta to Wanla villages beyond a spot called Demdemcha was treacherous due to the swollen rivers, which sometimes carried away horses. This route was primarily used after the Ston season, when the water froze, making the passage safer. In warmer months, they followed the Wanla Chutsan route, exiting at Lamayuru village, where they purchased essential supplies. This journey involved an overnight stop near Chutsan, but during Ston, the route to Wanla could be completed in a single day. At Wanla, barley grown at Photoksar was traded for locally grown wheat and peas, with an equal exchange rate.

Due to Photoksar's cold climate, it was difficult for plants other than barley to flourish. Pea plants, if grown did not bear fruit and was often served as fodder for cattle. While many in Photoksar consumed peas from Wanla mixed with barley, Tashi preferred to plant the pea seeds solely to grow fodder for his livestock. He also remembers the Res system, where the people of Photoksar were required to provide free services to government officials traveling between Wanla and Yulsum. Occasionally, traders from Chiktan would come to the area to sell Doltoks (stone utensils). In earlier times, when resources were scarce, Tashi had heard from the elders that their ancestors would travel to Nyingti (a generic term used for Mandi and nearby places in Himachal Pradesh) to earn extra income through labor.

The Salt Route : Lamayuru to Tibet and Baltistan.

 

Sonam Stobdan

95-year-old Sonam Stobdan, from the Shutupa family in Lamayuru village in Ladakh, India, has spent many years of his life trading in and out of remote places, both within and outside Ladakh. His travels were carefully timed to coincide with the Hemis Tsechu festival, after which he would start his journey to Changthang or Tibet. In his youth, Sonam journeyed to Rudok, which he called Roochey Thog, and Gertse in Tibet with his herd of 8-10 donkeys, carrying goods such as barley, turnips, chuli, and phating from Ladakh. These items were highly valued by the natives of Tibet, and in exchange, he would receive bal, lena, and khullu.

Upon arriving in Gertse, Sonam would meet with the Gertse Spon, the local community leader, to gain permission to set up camp, often staying there for nearly a month.  He would set up his tent a little way away from the Changpas, respecting their privacy. He spent about a month, interacting with the Changpas, who lived in tents scattered across Gertse and the surrounding Lungpas and collected his stock of bal from them. Unlike modern trade, goods were often measured by volume rather than weight. In rare cases, he would use the traditional balance called the Nyaga. The exchange rate for goods varied, and he often received more bal, as barley was considered a rare commodity by the Changpas. In addition to bal, Sonam would also purchase sheep to carry the extra load, with each sheep able to carry two Batis of goods.

Sonam is one of the few remaining individuals in Ladakh who remembers the once-thriving salt markets of Sakti-Chemrey. He recalls how the Changpa salt traders would set up large markets in these areas, where thousands of sheep laden with salt would gather for days. Traders from the Sham region, particularly from villages above Bodh Kharbu (towards Khalste), would come to these markets to exchange Nas (barley) for the salt, which the Changpas brought from the salt fields of Lake Mingdum Tsaka in Tibet. Salt was traded for barley using a ratio of 4:5—four parts salt for five parts barley—with measurements typically done in Pao units (½ Pao, 1 Pao, with 4 Paos equaling 1 Seer, and 8 Paos equaling 1 Batti). After returning to Lamayuru and resting briefly, Sonam would travel to Kargil to sell the salt, often doubling his investment.

Sonam also made two memorable trips to Skardu and Shigar with his father. The journey from Kargil to Skardu took about eight days, passing through Olding, Sermik, and Gol. In Shigar, they camped near a sacred site associated with Guru Rinpoche. From Skardu, they purchased goods like Basho, Osay, and Phating, in exchange for salt and Bal. The Baltis, who were particularly fond of salt, would eagerly trade for it, often expressing their delight with the phrase Acho Bodh Leptok when they reached Shigar. To show their excitement upon seeing the precious salt, the Baltis would often take a handful of it and swallow it.

Reflecting on the past, Sonam also recalls the challenging days when the revenue department imposed taxes on the villagers in the form of Jins and Bhaps . They were also taxed for their goats, which had to be paid in the form of Ra-bhabs. While nearby villages like Dah, Hanu, and Bema would submit their Jins at Lamayuru, the people of Lamayuru were required to travel to Saspol twice a year to pay their dues.

Sonam has particularly unpleasant memories of the lower-level Ladakhi revenue officials, especially a notorious Chaprasi named Stanzin Ldawa (name changed), who, about 60 years ago, would visit the village with a whip, harshly treating the poor villagers. There was a Dak Bungalow in the village where the Hakims would rest, and the villagers were often forced to provide them with eggs, chicken, and goat. The villagers were also subjected to the Begar or Res system, where they were required to carry government loads from Lamayuru to Khalste or Bodh Kharbu for free. At times, they even had to carry a Palki, a four-man carriage, in which the officials’ families traveled. Any misstep would result in a whipping from the accompanying staff. Sonam, being a horse owner, was spared from carrying the loads himself, as he could offer his horse instead. However, those without horses, known as Miskyang, had to carry the burdens on their own backs.

In certain years, during autumn, when there was a scarcity of fodder for the donkeys, he would journey as far as Suru Karstey in Suru valley for grass and Phukma, a practice known as Phuktso.

Camels and Salt at Changla Pass, Ladakh

                              

Sonam Wangdu

Sonam Wangdu, 95 yrs, from Chemrey village in Leh, Ladakh, India, distinctly recalls that when he was young, Hor traders ( Turkic origin people from Yarkand, Kashgar, and surrounding regions), would descend the Changla Pass with camels and Horbungs-large donkeys from central Asia, that resembled Ladakhi horses. The Hor traders brought high-quality goods, especially sought-after items like silk and carpets. They had two varieties of silk: Shayee, which was considered superior, and Tutsey, which was of slightly lower quality. On the way back these traders preferred to return via the Khardungla Pass rather than Changla.

The other travelers to cross the Changla Pass were the Tibetan traders, who would bring salt from the lakes of Mindum Tsaka and Kyeltse in Tibet during the 8th or 9th month of the Ladakhi calendar. There was an unwritten code in Chemrey that required Tibetan salt traders to camp on land belonging to the Chemrey Gompa for at least three days before moving on to land owned by local families. In return for using the Gompa's or the families' land, the traders would leave behind rilmang (sheep/goat dung) to fertilize the land.

The salt market in Chemrey lasted for two to three months,during which the Tibetan traders would come and go. The market would attract traders from all over Ladakh including Sham and Baltistan. Baltistani traders would bring goods such as Phating (apricots), Osey (mulberries), and sometimes butter, which Wangdu recalls was of inferior quality compared to the butter brought by the Tibetan traders. Occasionally, a few Zanskari traders would venture to Kharu and Chemrey to sell butter, but this was rare.

During the Dogra rule, there was an important government official, known as the Munshi, residing in Tangste village. The Munshi was responsible for controlling trade, including salt, and for collecting fees from traders entering and leaving Ladakh via Changla. There was a government Kutti (house) in Tangste where the Munshi lived. Wangdu remembers that the father of the renowned Ladakhi scholar, the late Tashi Rabgais, from the Tukchupa family of Sakti village, once served as the Munshi at Tangste.

Sonam Wangdu fondly remembers many of his Tibetan friends, including Rabang Talmo and Thinley, who would come to Chemrey every year to trade their salt.