Rani Tashi Diskit Angmo, Mulbekh.

Rani Tashi Diskit Angmo le, 92 yrs, is the Queen of the former princely state of Mulbekh in Ladakh. Fondly known as Ama Gyamo (the Queen Mother), she embodies the living memory of a bygone era in Ladakh’s trade networks and administrative traditions.

She recalls a time when salt was sourced from the high-altitude plains of Changthang. Although only a few villagers from Mulbekh undertook the arduous journey themselves, the route was more commonly traversed by traders from the Sham region, particularly Lamayuru and Khalatse. These merchants brought with them salt, wool and soda, which they traded in Mulbekh before moving westward toward Kargil and Baltistan.

Among them was her grandfather, Jigmet Namgyal, who led caravans from Mulbekh to Baltistan, a key node in this trans-Himalayan commerce.

Following the Dogra conquest of Ladakh, aristocratic families in Ladakh were conferred titles and responsibilities by the Dogra kings. Jigmet Namgyal’s father was known as Moti Ram, and he had two younger brothers, Hiraman and Tsering Choskyap.

Her family was responsible for the collection of the annual tax from Mulbekh known as bhaps, paid in cash. Though she still retains the ceremonial title of Goba (village head), a role she has held longer than anyone else in Ladakh, she no longer oversees tax collection, as the practice was discontinued. Yet she remembers clearly that at just 15 years of age, the village tax amounted to ₹100, paid entirely in silver rupee coins. 

The Brokpas of Ladakh: Petroglyphs, Doltoks and Telegraph

Chamba Gyaltsan

The Brokpa community, settled in villages along the banks of the Indus River in Ladakh, India, is regarded as one of the earliest settler groups in the region. Chamba Gyaltsan, now 97 years old and a resident of Dah village, is one of the oldest members of the Brokpa community. He recalls the legend of his ancestors—three brothers named Galo, Melo, and Dulo—who migrated from Gilgit centuries ago. They first settled in Dah and later expanded to Hanu, Garkhon, Darchik, and neighboring villages.

The author met him in Baldes, a small hamlet of Dah. Reflecting on his disciplined youth, Chamba credits his health to a life centered around farming and family responsibilities. During his youth each day began around 4 a.m., feeding their horses, donkeys, and goats before starting fieldwork without breakfast. Time was marked by the sun’s position rather than clocks; as it rose above the mountains, they knew it was time to head home for their first meal. Food was seasonal: in autumn and winter, they ate paaba made from chaa (sorghum) for warmth, while in summer, barley was used to make kholak and paaba.

When Chamba was a young man, many from the Brokpa villages, including Chamba's father, journeyed to the salt markets in the Sakti and Chemrey villages, where they traded their barley and phating (dried apricots) for salt with Changpa traders. In these markets, only the leader of the Changpa group handled negotiations. Salt was traded in solid natural blocks known as Tsa dok-dok, rather than in powder form. The typical exchange rate was three battis (about 2 kg) of salt for one batti of phating, with separate rates set for wool (bal) and sheep. If needed, Changpa traders used a traditional scale called nyaga, calibrated with a stone known as pordo, to measure goods.

After returning from the Sakti-Chemrey market, Chamba's father and fellow villagers traveled over a week from Dah to reach Skardu and Shigar in Baltistan, where they traded salt for additional phating (dried apricots). It was customary for family members to escort relatives till Olding and Morol in Baltistan, where they crossed rivers in a ritual known as chu phingey phiya, or “crossing the water.” At 18, shortly after his marriage, Chamba joined this journey himself, traveling from Dah through Gurgurdo, Phuru, and Dansar to reach Morol—a three-day trek.

According to Chamba, the route to Skardo was known to involve crossing three major rivers. While Chamba could only identify the Leh-Chu (Indus) and Kusting Chu (Shyok), maps suggest that the third river might have been the Drass River, which travelers likely crossed to reach Olding before crossing the Indus again to arrive in Morol. This remains a hypothesis and could be refined with new information. At Morol, Chamba observed how the Brokpas relied on native Baltis to help them cross the rivers, using inflated buffalo skins called Jaks. The Baltis would place a Spangleb—a wooden slab—on two Jaks and secure it with ropes, creating a sturdy boat called a Thorow, capable of carrying both people and animals. Chamba saw that while men, donkeys, and cattle sailed on the Thorow, the horses would literally swim across the rivers. After ensuring his father’s safe crossing, Chamba returned to Dah.

The annual visits that the Brokpa traders made to the Sakti-Chemrey salt markets were primarily for trading salt in Baltistan. However, for personal use, the Brokpas in Dah mainly relied on Shamma traders, who traveled directly to villages in winter to sell salt and wool. These Shamma traders came from neighbouring villages of Saspol, Skurbuchan, and Temisgang, often braving heavy snowfall in the 11th and 12th months of the Ladakhi calendar. The annual visits of the Shamma traders and their trade involving tsa (salt) and bal (wool) were known as Tsatob Baltob by the Brokpas. The sturdy Shamma traders would camp in open fields, brewing tea, even during snow in harsh winter conditions. They borrowed shovels from villagers to clear the snow and covered their donkeys with thick covers for warmth.  The Brokpas would offer them supplies of kornak or patchaa—the remains of apricot kernels after oil extraction—as feed for their donkeys and dried turnips and chuli (apricots) in exchange of salt.

However, there were times of salt scarcity and Chamba narrated a little known practice followed by the Brokpas in the past. During times of scarcity, the Brokpa community, including Chamba Gyalstan's family, practiced an ingenious tradition of gathering Pa-tsaa from nearby mountains. This whitish substance, which resembled soda found in Nubra, was collected from soil secretions in certain mountainous areas. Chamba explained that his parents would carry it as a mixture of soil and stones back home, where they would process it by mixing it with water in a doltok ( stone utensil). The water was then filtered and used as a substitute for salt, helping the community manage during shortages.

Before India's independence in 1947, Leh served as Ladakh's summer capital, while Skardu was the winter capital. Government business operated through a Darbar Shift, with officials moving between the two locations based on the season. Communication between Leh and Skardu was maintained through telegrams and mail. Once, while in Leh, Chamba recalls witnessing a strange machine on which a government employee was operating a handle at different frequencies. Curious about the device, he learned that the silver wires connecting Leh to Skardu enabled the machine, known as the telegraph, to transmit messages across the distance.

In the past, doltoks (stone utensils) were a significant trade item between the Brokpas and the Baltis of Baltistan. Chamba shared that these essential utensils were crafted by villagers from Kusting (the old name for Hassanabad), located along the Shyok River, now in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. The Brokpas would meet the Kusting villagers at Kusting La, the site for Doltoks making. Kusting la, a mountain pass accessible from Dah after crossing Nyerda, was an area known for its abundant stone resources ideal for making doltoks. This trade involved Brokpas from Dah and villagers from Khalste, who traveled specifically to acquire these utensils. A mutual understanding existed between the communities: Brokpas would leave any unattended doltoks untouched, while Kusting villagers refrained from disturbing the Brokpas' cattle grazing in the area. Due to limited income, Kusting villagers also traveled annually to Shimla in Himachal Pradesh for seasonal work. Chamba Gyaltsan recalls seeing them pass through Dah, often stopping to rest at the changra (a communal space for celebrations) along their journey.

Meeting with Chamba Gyaltsan was filled with many anecdotal discussions. The areas around the Brokpa villages of Ladakh are famous for their high concentration of petroglyphs. Chamba shared a mystical explanation for the petroglyphs found around Khalste and Brokpa villages in the Indus Valley. According to him, these engravings are not man-made but were created by tiny beings known as Ileyphru, who work only under the cover of darkness. So small that they could fit into a cap. He claims to have witnessed this phenomenon firsthand when, once overnight, a petroglyph appeared on a local boulder. Chamba notes that local folklore holds that if one encounters an Ileyphru, the creature may grant a wish.

The oppressive Res or Thal system required villagers to provide free labor to government officials as they traveled between Leh, Kargil, and neighboring villages. For Dah’s 35 families, this duty extended from Nyurla to Lamayuru. Chamba vividly remembers one particularly challenging Res duty: transporting large tires across the mountains, a task that left him with painful rashes on his back. In addition to Res, villagers faced Jinsi and Bhaps taxes, collected twice a year by the Goba (village head) and submitted at Lamayuru. Chamba also recalls a time when nearly everything in Ladakh was taxed, from horses to land. 

Besides these obligations, the Ladakhis had to deal with a barrage of government officials making unreasonable demands. During Losar, the Kazdar would visit Dah, arriving with two horses and accompanied by the Shikardo, who enforced hunting restrictions. Villagers hosted these officials at the Goba’s residence, offering phukma (dry grass) for the horses and serving chang (local alcohol) and lavish food to the guests. During his stay, the Kazdar also resolved local disputes. These visits required the Brokpas to offer gifts, and doltoks were highly prized by the visiting officials. Years later, Chamba visited the family of a deceased Kazdar and recognized several doltoks he believed were forced gifts from his village.

Chamba holds deep respect for the 19th Ven. Bakula Rinpoche, whose efforts ultimately led to the abolition of these oppressive practices, freeing the people of Ladakh from the burdens of forced labor and excessive taxes.

Brokpa traders: Sakti-Chemrey to Baltistan

Nawang Stanzin

Nawang Stanzin, 96, from the Pichipa family, is one of the oldest residents of Garkon village in the Kargil district of Ladakh, India. He belongs to the Brokpa community, regarded as one of the earliest settlers of Ladakh. When he was young, it was a common practice for the Brokpa people from Dah, Hanu, Garkhon, and Batalik villages to travel to the famous salt markets of Sakti and Chemrey villages exchanging local barley for salt from Tibet. The salt was then transported to faraway places like Skardo and Shigar in Baltistan, where it was traded for apricots and cash. The money earned from selling salt in Baltistan was mainly used to pay the government tax in Ladakh, known as Bhaps, which was levied twice a year. The tax, amounting to 1 to 2 annas, had to be paid in Mulbek. Apart from Bhaps, villagers also endured the burden of Jins and the oppressive practice of Res/Begar, where they were forced to transport loads from Mulbek to Bod Kharbu. Nawang participated in Res, where he carried official loads of Dak and Bistara.

According to Nawang Stanzin who was a regular visitor to the Sakti-Chemrey salt market, the main salt market took place on the fields belonging to the Chemrey Monastery, where traders from all over Ladakh gathered to buy salt, wool, and sheep in exchange of barley. Nawang vividly remembers seeing over 1,000 sheep at this lively marketplace, their backs laden with Lugals (saddle bags). The trading terms were straightforward—equal amounts of barley were exchanged for equal amounts of salt. The Changpa traders also dealt in wool, offering ready-made bales of wool called 'Stakhur,' which were easily carried by horses or donkeys. From Garkhon, it took eight days to reach Ladakh, and the same amount of time was needed to reach Skardo.

Abiding by the old tradition of seeing off family and friends embarking on trade journeys to Baltistan, the farthest Nawang ever traveled was to Morol and Olding, now part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). These locations served as the farewell points, where they would watch the elders cross rivers to reach Skardu and Shigar. The rivers were crossed using flat wooden platforms called Bhips, which were sturdy enough to carry both people and animals. A Balti rower, using a long stick, would guide the Bhips across the river, ensuring a safe passage. Besides the Bhips, the Baltis used an ingenious method called Balang Pakspa to cross rivers. They would sew and inflate buffalo skins, allowing a person to lie on the inflated skin and paddle across. A third method combined both approaches—a Bhips built on top of inflated buffalo skins.

The journey to and back from Baltistan took about a month. From the long journey of Baltistan, the traders brought back Phating (apricots) and Zhupu (young dzho, a yak-cattle hybrid). Nawang also recalls a time when some villagers brought back stongyur chaa, a variety of grain from Skardo, so fertile that one seed could produce up to 1,000 grains.

In addition to his trading activities, Nawang Stanzin has occasionally taken on the role of a Mon, a traditional musician who performed for his community during special occasions. This responsibility circulates from person to person within the community, ensuring that the tradition is passed on and maintained across generations.

The Forgotten Chortens of Chulichan, Ladakh.

The Indus River, which originates in Tibet, enters India at Changthang and flows through Chulichan village, located about 60 kilometers from Kargil, before continuing into Baltistan, now part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). Today, the entire population of Chulichan practices Islam. Many residents in Chulichan trace their ancestry to the Dardi people, similar to those living in villages of Dah, Hanu, Garkhon, and others. The Dardi language is still spoken by the community. In Chulichan, two neglected and previously unrecorded chortens can be found, likely among the last of their kind in this part of Ladakh.

According to local legend, many centuries ago a Lama (a Buddhist monk) named Konchok Sherbstan from Lehdo village in Leh district, founded Chulichan by constructing an irrigation canal in the barren land. Gradually, people started settling in the new village. In the beginning, everyone in the village followed the Lama’s Buddhist teachings, but over time they converted to Islam. After the Lama’s death, the original Buddhist residents built two chortens in his memory.

Haji Mohd

Haji Mohd, 82, from the Kyonpa family, shares that he was born in a Luklo, adhering to the traditional Ladakhi age-counting system. He reminisces about a time when the villagers lived simply, relying mainly on Bro (buckwheat) and Tsya (millet) to prepare Paba a traditional Ladakhi dish. Apricot water was also a staple source of nourishment for the community.

Haji Mohd's family currently owns two cows and eight goats, a significant decline from the nearly 100 goats they had in his youth. In line with their Dardi tradition, they keep only a few cows, a practice that is relatively recent, as the Dardi community traditionally avoided drinking cow's milk. While many families in Chulichan continue to honor their ancestral family deities, known as Sabdak, in their old homes, this practice is gradually fading in the new houses being built. Haji Mohd recalls when traders from Changthang and Sham region regularly visited Chulichan to trade their salt and other goods, often braving harsh winter conditions. A site called Luksa in Chulichan served as a well-known resting spot for these traders. Most traders relied on donkeys for transport, with sheep occasionally accompanying them. Chulichan also welcomed visitors from Baltistan, who typically arrived at night to purchase salt that the natives had purchased from the Changpas.

Haji Mohd remembers the Angrezpas (Europeans) who visited Chulichan to 'take photographs'. In the village, there is a mountain with a glacier that serves as the primary water source. According to Haji Mohd, long before he was born, these foreigners constructed a tower on the mountain ( likely as part of the Great Trigonometric Survey, which the British used to survey all of India). According to Haji Mohd, the tower has some numbers engraved on it.

Haji Mohd's wife, Ama Misabi le, recalls that for many years, the villagers honored the deceased Lama's chorten by following a Dardi tradition that involved offering threcho, wood dipped in butter and lit, along with butter lamps. Today, however, the chortens are in a state of disrepair, indicating that few people have visited the site in recent years. During the visit, the author placed katakhs, ceremonial scarves, at the site to pay tribute to the memory of the late lama.

Tashi Lundup

Nawang Sharap

The author would like to extend heartfelt gratitude to Tashi Lundup le, Nawang Sharap le, and Tsewang Gyaltsen le, of the Labdakh family in Garkon village for making this visit possible.

Last of the Traders

Tashi Stanba

Tashi Stanba, a centenarian from Domkhar village in Ladakh, is one of the last surviving traders from an era when Ladakhi merchants ventured into Baltistan to sell tsa (salt), bal (wool), and pul (soda). While Tashi's father, Aba Chamba, bought salt at the annual salt markets in Chemrey and Sakti, his elder brother preferred traveling to the remote Changthang region to acquire wool. Among all the goods brought by the Ladakhi traders, salt was in particularly high demand in Baltistan. 

On his maiden trip to Khaplu in Baltistan, Stanba, along with his elder brother and four companions, set out with seven donkeys loaded with Tsa, Bal, and Pul. They traveled via the Achinathang-Hanu Phu-Chorbat La route, passing through an area where the Turtuk Chu (Shyok River) meets another river before reaching Khaplu. The journey from Domkhar to Khaplu took seven days. Along the way, they stopped at a Sandog, which had a large goat population. There, they purchased a goat, which they later feasted on upon reaching Khaplu.

Upon reaching Khaplu, they set up a base at a Brangsa near the town, where the Baltis greeted them with food. In return, the Ladakhi traders offered salt as gift. Tashi recalled an interesting tradition in Baltistan: when the Baltis received salt from Ladakh, they would swallow a handful in one go. In his case, the locals consumed an entire cupful of salt in one gulp. The demand for Ladakhi salt was high, and the Baltis often competed for a share of the limited supply. Each morning, the Ladakhi traders would rise early to finish their meal before the Baltis arrived, as their bustling presence stirred up dust and made cooking more difficult. 

During his stay in Khaplu, Tashi Stanba and his companions had the unique opportunity to witness a polo match featuring the local chieftain, known as the Cho, who they were told was a descendant of Buddhist ancestors. They learned that the Khar (fort) in Khaplu housed copies of the Kangyur and Tangyur, sacred Buddhist texts that served as a reminder of their heritage. After the match, when the Ladakhi traders were trying to find their way back to the Brangsa, the Cho came to their aid and guided them home. Stanba and the other traders spent about ten days in Khaplu, returning with Phating (dried apricots), dried mulberries and  Mar (butter). Although Tashi Stanba cannot recall the exact year or his age at the time of his visit to Khaplu, he distinctly remembers that it occurred during the Dogra rule.

Balti traders frequently visited Domkhar, Sham, and other parts of Ladakh. According to Tashi Stanba, over 100 Baltis would pass through Domkhar each year, traveling to various parts of Ladakh to sell butter and Doltok (stone utensils) of different sizes. These goods were carried on wooden frames called Kis-Kis, which were strapped to their backs. When the Baltis grew tired, they would remain standing but rest by placing a stick under the Kis-Kis to relieve the load. Some Balti traders could carry up to 50 Battis (each Batti weighing about 2 kg) of butter at once, selling them for Rs 2.5 per Batti in Domkhar. The Baltis exchanged Doltoks for barley, using a unique method: they filled each selected Doltok to the brim to determine the quantity of barley for the final exchange.

In his youth, Tashi Stanba operated a small shop in Domkhar, selling essentials like matchboxes, Pakphey (wheat flour), and Marnak (mustard oil). To stock his shop, he frequently traveled to Kashmir, visiting places like Batamaloo where he purchased Marnak for Rs 5 per tin. On one occasion, when they were stuck in Kashmir due to the closure of traffic to Ladakh,Stanba and his companions sought help from Sonam Nurbo Sahib, who was then a minister in the Jammu and Kashmir government. Thanks to his intervention, they were escorted to Kargil, and from there, a police vehicle took them till Khalatse.

Tashi Stanba attributes much of Ladakh's development to the 19th Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Sonam Nurbo Sahib. He believes that through the efforts of Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib, Ladakh saw significant progress, including the arrival of airplanes. He remembered seeing an airplane for the first time and offering Chak (a salutation) to express his gratitude to both Ven. Bakula Rinpoche and Nurbo Sahib.

The above interview was conducted in 2021.

100 years of Ladakh : Aba Mohd Hassan

Mohd Hassan

Born in 1922, Mohd Hassan, a resident of Leh, Ladakh, India, attended a school that was started by the Shia community of Leh, in Chutey Rantak, Leh, in 1915. Mohd Hassan recalls the teachers of that time: Bah Nabi, Munshi Hussain (the father of Dr. Ramzan), Kharmangpa, Akhon Ahmed ( Sheikh Mirza’s father ). These teachers were paid Rs. 5 per month. According to Mohd Hassan, his school years were marked by a mixture of progress and setbacks. He admitted that he often alternated between passing and failing and frequently dropped out and re-enrolled, reflecting the challenges of staying in school during that era. 

Mohd Hassan cherished his school days and deeply appreciated the efforts of the community to sustain the school in Chutey Rantak. Unfortunately, the school faced severe financial dificulties in the 1940s. In an attempt to save it, the Muslim community of Leh pooled together a significant sum of Rs. 40,000. This money was used to purchase Bal and Lena from the local market, and a man named Sheikh Ali, a native of Baltistan, was entrusted with selling the stock in Kashmir to generate additional funds for the school. Sadly, Sheikh Ali never returned, and the school was forced to close in 1945.

In between, after finishing class five, Mohd Hassan’s parents decided to continue his studies and enrolled him in a middle school in Leh, where the late Shri P. Namgyal, one of Ladakh's foremost political leaders, was his classmate in Class 6. His other classmates included Wangdan,Togochey, from Stok who was in boarding, Sonam from Phyang Gondarey, and Maj Tsetan Phunsok from Hunder. Shri P. Namgyal’s elder brother, the legendary Col Rinchen, was also in school with them in Class 7. Zomdey Ka Tashi Punsok, who had been posted as a teacher in Skardo, Shigar and Kharmang, was Aba Hassan’s tuition master. At that time, there was no school beyond Class 8 in Ladakh, and anyone interested in further studies had to go to Srinagar. Mohd Hassan didn’t pursue further studies and was soon inducted into the Army. Later, as circumstances allowed, he joined the Ladakh Police.

Mohd Hassan has fond memories of Changthang, where he was posted for many years. In 1952, while in service, Jawaharlal Nehru visited Ladakh in a Dakota plane that landed in a remote region. Nehru was accompanied by Indira Gandhi, who was a young girl at the time, along with Sheikh Abdullah and some senior ministers of the Government of India. This was the first time Mohd Hassan tasted mithai (Indian sweets), which was distributed by the local administration. He also recalls that at one time, Katcho Mohd Ali Khan from Kargil was the SDM in Nyoma.

Once while in Changthang with Tashi Namgyal of the Bandepa family and a two-star officer named Ghulam Rasool they went to Phobrang village to meet  the Goba (the village Headman) named Chopel, a very wealthy man with over 1,000 raluks (goats and sheep). To their surprise, none of the 15-20 families were at home. Only one elderly woman remained in the village. She informed them that a Lama Chenmo (a senior Lama) had come to visit the village, and all the villagers had gone to attend his teachings. When Mohd Hassan and his companions arrived at the gathering, they found the villagers listening to the Lama and asking him questions. The session lasted until 4 p.m., after which it was Ghulam Rasool’s turn. The Lama looked into a khatak (ceremonial scarf) and told Ghulam Rasool that there was a gathering in his house in Leh and that he should prepare for unpleasant news. After returning to Phobrang village, Goba Chopel insisted on slaughtering a goat for the group, but Ghulam Rasool was not in the mood for a celebration and insisted on returning to their base in Chushul. They reached Chushul that night, around 2 a.m., where a message was waiting for them that a member of Ghulam Rasool’s family had passed away. Mohd Hassan and Ghulam Rasool quickly borrowed two horses from the Kotwal and traveled back via the Muglib route.

Mohd Hassan is one of the few people who witnessed a little-known event in Ladakhi history. Somewhere between the late 1940s and early 1950s Ladakh saw the sudden arrival of hundreds of Kazakhs fleeing from atrocities. They were armed and arrived with their families, women, children, and livestock. According to Aba Hassan, they also had valuables, apparently looted from Tibetan monasteries and nomads during their journey to India. Soon they were allowed to set up temporary camps at Choglamsar, Skara Yokma Spang, and Shey. Desperate and tired, they were willing to barter generously with their possessions. Mohd Hassan would go to Skara with chunpo, for which he would receive one sheep. He would buy yaks and horses from the Kazakhs, purchasing a yak and a horse for Rs. 2 each, and then selling them for Rs. 3 and Rs. 3.5 in the market. One sheep was exchanged for a single roti (bread). In those days, law and order were maintained by Col Abdul Majid of the Kashmir government. After a few months, in early 1950s in the month of October or November, the Kazakhs were shifted on foot, out of Ladakh, through the Zojila Pass. Many of them died on the way, but a few managed to reach Baltal in Kashmir, and it is believed that they were later settled in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Years later, while in Srinagar with Ramatullah of the Sergar family and Wakhapa Rigzin, Mohd Hassan, along with another person from Kargil, visited Col Abdul Majid, who had retired and settled in Resham Khana near Batamaloo, Srinagar. Majid’s house was decorated with expensive Kazakh items, which he claimed to have bought from the Kazakhs.

Before 1947, traders known as Hors (from Xinjiang) and Karjapas (from Himachal) would visit Leh. The Hors would visit Leh in ston (autumn) and would buy olthang (grass fields) in places like Horzey, Kyokpey Olthang, and Choskorpe where they would keep their camels, horses, and donkeys. They would set up small markets in Leh and sell carpets, wool, charok, kampis, basho, and almonds. They would even sell horses; a horse was sold for Rs. 25, and Rs. 1 was paid as a commission to anyone who helped with the sale. Mohd Hassan still remembers how the Hors would announce “Nye da Baram” in the Uyghur language, meaning “Where are you going?” and “Nye may Kalem,” meaning “What are you doing?”. 

Mohd Hassan believed that Hors after crossing the Karakoram Pass, would part ways in Shyok valley: some moved to Leh through Khardung La or Chang La, while others moved toward Baltistan along the Shyok River. Aba Hassan also heard strange stories from Ladakhis, especially Chushotpas and Nubrapas, who traveled with the Hors to Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO). They claimed to hear the sound of galloping horses at night, which the Hors attributed to King Gesar’s horses. They also reported seeing dead bodies that appeared lifelike but would turn to dust when touched. Then there were tales of people finding treasures left behind by the Hors. One story involved someone finding a horjon (a double bag used by the Hors on horseback) containing traditional kulchas (small breads). When each kulcha was broken, a gold coin was found inside. The Hors reportedly carried these coins to avoid customs at the Karakoram Pass. 

Besides the Hors, the Karjapa traders would travel on horses with their servants, selling smandok (medicinal ingredients), kuram, cha, ras, tarchok, pabbu, and das (rice). Unlike the Hors, they would stay near the mountains for 6-7 days, setting up their tents in Gangles, Chomchala, Kugala, Lgeuma, and Smanla, where their servants would take care of the horses.

Reminiscing about the time when Leh was the summer capital and Skardo was the winter capital of Ladakh, Mohd Hassan recalled the Darbar shift system. One of his tutor’s friends, Katcho Raza of Skardu, would accompany the commissioner from Skardu in May and return in October. Even the dogs were carried on palkis. The team included the cooks, office kanungo, munshis and other officers, in total about 20-30 people. The commissioner was the highest-ranking official. They would stay in Leh for six months, similar to the Darbar shift in Kashmir. This practice was discontinued after India’s independence in 1947.

Before 1947, Leh had a very small deployment of forces under the Dogras. According to Mohd Hassan there were only 15-20 sepoys at Zorawar Fort, who were responsible for guarding the government Treasury. A similar number of sepoys were stationed in Kargil Treasury. Mohd Hassan recalled hearing that before Zorawar Fort was built, a ruined fort had stood in its place. He had also heard stories of Mirza Haider, who invaded Ladakh in the 1530s, destroying the fort by flooding it. Mohd Hassan remembers that when he was a young boy, the fort was repaired, and laborers were paid a daily wage of 4 annas for their work. 

In Leh, there was a Kotwal (police officer) who earned Rs. 8 per month. Mohd Hassan remembers one Kadir, from the Kalam family, who was a one-star officer. If transferred to Skardo, the Kotwal’s salary increased to Rs. 12. The same applied to any official transferred from Skardo to Leh. Initially, the thana (police station) was located in the new bazaar, but it was later shifted to Hors Sarai Kongma, which had been used as a Sarai (inn) by the Hor traders. The Sarai Yokma was taken over by the armed forces and eventually converted into quarters, which were constructed by an engineer from the Marstelang Cho family. Mohd Hassan also recalled that there was a Charas godown near Chutey Rantak, which was later given to Munshi Isa and Pir Sahib in exchange for land taken from them during road construction. In those days, the Hors bought Charas, which the Karjapa traders would then transport on horses to the plains. Mohd Hassan mentioned that there was a customs godown near Balkhang where Charas duties were collected, but he was unsure of its fate. Other customs sites in Ladakh included Balukhar in Khalste and a site near the present-day Khardongla Hotel, close to Chubi and Chutey Rantak. A Bangey Munshi (scribe) used to reside near Hemis Labrang.

Mohd Hassan also fondly remembered the days of Dosmochey, a festival. Three days before the festival, Skutaks from Leh would go to Stok to invite the Stok King to the Leh Palace. On the day of the festival, the Skutaks of Leh would welcome the Aba Gyapo (the king) and Abhi Gyamo (the queen) with a grand Kalchor and Spos. The Skutaks would follow them on 50-60 horses. This would be followed by a dance at Khardok Chenmo and a Larna.

Two rounds of interviews over three years with Mohd Hassan le revealed many fascinating and lesser-known aspects of Ladakhi history. His life is a treasure trove of experiences from early 20th-century Ladakh, and his memories provide valuable insights into the culture and history of the region. His rich experiences should be professionally documented, as few people in Ladakh have lived such an extraordinary and impactful life.

The Salt Route : Lamayuru to Tibet and Baltistan.

 

Sonam Stobdan

95-year-old Sonam Stobdan, from the Shutupa family in Lamayuru village in Ladakh, India, has spent many years of his life trading in and out of remote places, both within and outside Ladakh. His travels were carefully timed to coincide with the Hemis Tsechu festival, after which he would start his journey to Changthang or Tibet. In his youth, Sonam journeyed to Rudok, which he called Roochey Thog, and Gertse in Tibet with his herd of 8-10 donkeys, carrying goods such as barley, turnips, chuli, and phating from Ladakh. These items were highly valued by the natives of Tibet, and in exchange, he would receive bal, lena, and khullu.

Upon arriving in Gertse, Sonam would meet with the Gertse Spon, the local community leader, to gain permission to set up camp, often staying there for nearly a month.  He would set up his tent a little way away from the Changpas, respecting their privacy. He spent about a month, interacting with the Changpas, who lived in tents scattered across Gertse and the surrounding Lungpas and collected his stock of bal from them. Unlike modern trade, goods were often measured by volume rather than weight. In rare cases, he would use the traditional balance called the Nyaga. The exchange rate for goods varied, and he often received more bal, as barley was considered a rare commodity by the Changpas. In addition to bal, Sonam would also purchase sheep to carry the extra load, with each sheep able to carry two Batis of goods.

Sonam is one of the few remaining individuals in Ladakh who remembers the once-thriving salt markets of Sakti-Chemrey. He recalls how the Changpa salt traders would set up large markets in these areas, where thousands of sheep laden with salt would gather for days. Traders from the Sham region, particularly from villages above Bodh Kharbu (towards Khalste), would come to these markets to exchange Nas (barley) for the salt, which the Changpas brought from the salt fields of Lake Mingdum Tsaka in Tibet. Salt was traded for barley using a ratio of 4:5—four parts salt for five parts barley—with measurements typically done in Pao units (½ Pao, 1 Pao, with 4 Paos equaling 1 Seer, and 8 Paos equaling 1 Batti). After returning to Lamayuru and resting briefly, Sonam would travel to Kargil to sell the salt, often doubling his investment.

Sonam also made two memorable trips to Skardu and Shigar with his father. The journey from Kargil to Skardu took about eight days, passing through Olding, Sermik, and Gol. In Shigar, they camped near a sacred site associated with Guru Rinpoche. From Skardu, they purchased goods like Basho, Osay, and Phating, in exchange for salt and Bal. The Baltis, who were particularly fond of salt, would eagerly trade for it, often expressing their delight with the phrase Acho Bodh Leptok when they reached Shigar. To show their excitement upon seeing the precious salt, the Baltis would often take a handful of it and swallow it.

Reflecting on the past, Sonam also recalls the challenging days when the revenue department imposed taxes on the villagers in the form of Jins and Bhaps . They were also taxed for their goats, which had to be paid in the form of Ra-bhabs. While nearby villages like Dah, Hanu, and Bema would submit their Jins at Lamayuru, the people of Lamayuru were required to travel to Saspol twice a year to pay their dues.

Sonam has particularly unpleasant memories of the lower-level Ladakhi revenue officials, especially a notorious Chaprasi named Stanzin Ldawa (name changed), who, about 60 years ago, would visit the village with a whip, harshly treating the poor villagers. There was a Dak Bungalow in the village where the Hakims would rest, and the villagers were often forced to provide them with eggs, chicken, and goat. The villagers were also subjected to the Begar or Res system, where they were required to carry government loads from Lamayuru to Khalste or Bodh Kharbu for free. At times, they even had to carry a Palki, a four-man carriage, in which the officials’ families traveled. Any misstep would result in a whipping from the accompanying staff. Sonam, being a horse owner, was spared from carrying the loads himself, as he could offer his horse instead. However, those without horses, known as Miskyang, had to carry the burdens on their own backs.

In certain years, during autumn, when there was a scarcity of fodder for the donkeys, he would journey as far as Suru Karstey in Suru valley for grass and Phukma, a practice known as Phuktso.